Quantum thermodynamics aims to extend standard thermodynamics and non-equilibrium statistical physics to systems with sizes well below the thermodynamic limit. It is a rapidly evolving research field that promises to change our understanding of the foundations of physics, while enabling the discovery of novel thermodynamic techniques and applications at the nanoscale. Thermal management has turned into a major obstacle in pushing the limits of conventional digital computers and could also represent a crucial issue for quantum computers. The practical realization of quantum computers with superconducting loops requires working at cryogenic temperatures to eliminate thermal noise, and ion-trap qubits also need low temperatures to minimize collisional noise. In both cases, the sub-nanometric sizes also bring about the thermal broadening of the quantum states; and even room-temperature photonic computers eventually require cryogenic detectors. A number of thermal and thermodynamic questions, therefore, take center stage, such as quantum re-definitions of work and heat, thermalization and randomization of quantum states, the overlap of quantum and thermal fluctuations, and many others, even including a proper definition of temperature for the small open systems constantly out of equilibrium that are the qubits. This overview provides an introductory perspective on a selection of current trends in quantum thermodynamics and their impact on quantum computers and quantum computing, with language that is accessible to postgraduate students and researchers from different fields.
Quantum thermodynamics aims to extend standard thermodynamics and non-equilibrium statistical physics to systems with sizes well below the thermodynamic limit. It is a rapidly evolving research field that promises to change our understanding of the foundations of physics, while enabling the discovery of novel thermodynamic techniques and applications at the nanoscale. Thermal management has turned into a major obstacle in pushing the limits of conventional digital computers and could also represent a crucial issue for quantum computers. The practical realization of quantum computers with superconducting loops requires working at cryogenic temperatures to eliminate thermal noise, and ion-trap qubits also need low temperatures to minimize collisional noise. In both cases, the sub-nanometric sizes also bring about the thermal broadening of the quantum states; and even room-temperature photonic computers eventually require cryogenic detectors. A number of thermal and thermodynamic questions, therefore, take center stage, such as quantum re-definitions of work and heat, thermalization and randomization of quantum states, the overlap of quantum and thermal fluctuations, and many others, even including a proper definition of temperature for the small open systems constantly out of equilibrium that are the qubits. This overview provides an introductory perspective on a selection of current trends in quantum thermodynamics and their impact on quantum computers and quantum computing, with language that is accessible to postgraduate students and researchers from different fields.
Quantum thermodynamics is an emerging research field aiming to extend standard thermodynamics and non-equilibrium statistical physics to ensembles of sizes well below the thermodynamic limit, in non-equilibrium situations and with the full inclusion of quantum effects. Fuelled by experimental advances and the potential of future nanoscale applications, this research effort is pursued by scientists with different backgrounds, including statistical physics, many-body theory, mesoscopic physics and quantum information theory, who bring various tools and methods to the field. A multitude of theoretical questions are being addressed ranging from issues of thermalisation of quantum systems and various definitions of ‘work’ to the efficiency and power of quantum engines. This overview provides a perspective on a selection of these current trends accessible to postgraduate students and researchers alike.
Quantum computing represents a transformative paradigm that exploits the principles of quantum mechanics—superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference—to perform computations beyond the capabilities of classical computers. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the fundamental concepts underlying quantum computation, including qubits, quantum gates, quantum algorithms and measurement theory. It further examines major physical implementations of quantum computers, such as superconducting circuits, trapped ions, photonic systems, spin-based qubits, and topological approaches, highlighting their operational principles, advantages, and technological limitations. Key challenges hindering large-scale quantum computation—decoherence, error rates, qubit scalability, and fault tolerance—are critically discussed. Additionally, recent progress in quantum error correction, hybrid quantum–classical algorithms, and hardware optimization is summarized. The review concludes by outlining future research directions and potential applications of quantum computing in cryptography, materials science, optimization, and drug discovery. By integrating theoretical foundations with experimental advancements, this article aims to provide a clear and accessible reference for students, researchers, and scientists entering the rapidly evolving field of quantum computing.
To understand in detail the relation between unitary quantum theory that describes our world at the microscopic scale and thermodynamics, which was long believed only to apply to macroscopic objects, is one of the most interesting and long-standing problems in physics. Recently, this problem has received renewed attention, in particular from the community of quantum information theory, but also from the field of statistical mechanics, inspired from stochastic thermodynamics. These results suggest that thermodynamics is also relevant for individual quantum systems, provided that they can be brought into contact with thermal baths. In this thesis, I use recently developed tools to provide new results both on fundamental questions, but also on questions which are of practical relevance for potential miniaturized thermal machines. In terms of fundamental questions, the results in this thesis contribute to understanding how the basic laws of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics can be understood directly from unitary quantum mechanics. In particular, I discuss and answer the following questions: i) How can we quantify the third law of thermodynamics using information theoretic methods? ii) How can we quantify the "thermodynamic value" of a state-transition in quantum systems? iii) How can we axiomatically characterize the non-equilibrium free energy and relative entropy? iv) How can we justify statistical ensembles from an operational perspective, without having to introduce either some probability measures or an information theoretic entropy measure? v) How can we understand the equilibration of closed quantum systems, how long does it take and how difficult is it to avoid? In the second part of the thesis I discuss in detail how experimental restrictions, which become important at the quantum scale, influence the ultimate thermodynamic bounds for thermal machines. In particular, the results in this thesis provide thermodynamic bounds on work-extraction and efficiencies of thermal machines in situations where 1.) an experimenter only has limited field strengths available, 2.) an experimenter cannot control the interactions between particles, but external fields arbitrarily well, and 3.) situations in which a small quantum system can only be strongly coupled to heat baths. These bounds are tight and I provide explicit examples illustrating the different behaviours. Finally, I come back to a classic problem in statistical physics: The emergence of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Here, I provide general and rigorous new results that show how symmetry-breaking stationary states emerge from fluctuations in order parameters in dissipative lattice models.
Quantum thermodynamics (QT) is an emerging field of research that aims to investigate how the laws of thermodynamics and quantum mechanics merge together in small quantum systems.With advances at the necessary technology to control and measure those small physical systems this field has acquired even more importance, not only in the sense that it can be tested, which is a good thing for basic research, but that new applications could be implemented at these scales, so a better comprehension of the limitations imposed by quantum thermodynamics turns out to be of crucial importance for these goals, which forces theoreticians to produce experimentally relevant versions of these new concepts.Another important aspect present at those systems is that part of them work in a regime where its constituents are described by non-thermal states, and in particular non-thermal steady states, which brings to light a different thermodynamic description, usually called steady-state thermodynamics, therefore one of the goals that we are willing to achieve with this thesis is to give an introduction to QT of systems out-of-equilibrium.One of the related subtopics that physicists deal with in QT and the one that we will be focusing on this work are the use of non-thermal stationary states to build heat engines in the quantum domain, and the analyses of the features that this new regime could possibly allow, like the use of quantum resources as a way to overcome classical limitations imposed on its performance, like to attain efficiencies higher than Carnot's or operate in certain regimes unattainable using only classical resources.Therefore, in order to clarify the underlying physics of those systems in a non-thermal regime, any experimentally well suited content is more than welcome.So keeping that in mind we devised an experimentally relevant thermodynamic cycle for a transmon qubit WS interacting with a non-thermal environment composed by two subsystems, an externally excited cavity and a classical heat bath with temperature T. The WS undergoes a non-conventional cycle (different from Otto, Carnot, etc.) through a succession of non-thermal stationary states obtained by slowly varying its bare frequency and the amplitude of the field applied on the cavity.The efficiency of this engine obtains a maximum value up to 47% in the regime of operation used.We also wanted to look for the role played by the different types of coherences, present at the WS, on the behavior of the engine and its efficiency.By different types of coherence we mean the so called modes of coherence, whose definition is based on how they respond to symmetry transformations.We did that for the trivial case of the qubit, that only contains the modes 1 and -1, and that has shown to be extremely important for the efficiency of the machine.The same procedure was repeated for a 3-level system WS.The modes 1 and -1 was again very important, not only to the absolute value of the engine's efficiency but to the regime of operation of the machine.The additional modes, 2 and -2, had a negative impact on the efficiency, reducing its absolute value.This result appears to show some evidences that quantumness won't necessarily bring improvements to the operation of those machines.
The dynamical convergence of a system to the thermal distribution, or Gibbs state, is a standard assumption across all of the physical sciences. The Gibbs state is determined just by temperature and energies of the system. However, at decreasing system sizes, i.e., for nanoscale and quantum systems, the interaction with their environments is not negligible. The question then arises: Is the system's steady state still the Gibbs state? If not, how may the steady state depend on the interaction details? Here, we provide an overview of recent progress on answering these questions. We expand on the state of the art along two general avenues: First, we take the static point-of-view, which postulates the so-called mean force Gibbs state. This view is commonly adopted in the field of strong coupling thermodynamics, where modified laws of thermodynamics and nonequilibrium fluctuation relations are established on the basis of this modified state. Second, we take the dynamical point of view, originating from the field of open quantum systems, which examines the time-asymptotic steady state within two paradigms. We describe the mathematical paradigm, which proves return to equilibrium, i.e., convergence to the mean force Gibbs state, and then discuss a number of microscopic physical methods, particularly master equations. We conclude with a summary of established links between statics and equilibration dynamics and provide an extensive list of open problems. This comprehensive overview will be of interest to researchers in the wider fields of quantum thermodynamics, open quantum systems, mesoscopic physics, statistical physics, and quantum optics and will find applications whenever energy is exchanged on the nanoscale, from quantum chemistry and biology to magnetism and nanoscale heat management.