Scalability in the fabrication and operation of quantum computers is key to move beyond the NISQ era. So far, superconducting transmon qubits based on aluminum Josephson tunnel junctions have demonstrated the most advanced results, though this technology is difficult to implement with large-scale facilities. An alternative "gatemon" qubit has recently appeared, which uses hybrid superconducting/semiconducting (S/Sm) devices as gate-tuned Josephson junctions. Current implementations of these use nanowires however, of which the large-scale fabrication has not yet matured either. A scalable gatemon design could be made with CMOS Josephson Field-Effect Transistors as tunable weak link, where an ideal device has leads with a large superconducting gap that contact a short channel through high-transparency interfaces. High transparency, or low contact resistance, is achieved in the microelectronics industry with silicides, of which some turn out to be superconducting. The first part of the experimental work in this thesis covers material studies on two such materials: $\text{V}_3\text{Si}$ and PtSi, which are interesting for their high $T_\text{c}$, and mature integration, respectively. The second part covers experimental results on 50 nm gate length PtSi transistors, where the transparency of the S/Sm interfaces is modulated by the gate voltage. At low voltages, the transport shows no conductance at low energy, and well-defined features at the superconducting gap. The barrier height at the S/Sm interface is reduced by increasing the gate voltage, until a zero-bias peak appears around zero drain voltage, which reveals the appearance of an Andreev current. The successful gate modulation of Andreev current in a silicon-based transistor represents a step towards fully CMOS-integrated superconducting quantum computers.
Scalability in the fabrication and operation of quantum computers is key to move beyond the NISQ era. So far, superconducting transmon qubits based on aluminum Josephson tunnel junctions have demonstrated the most advanced results, though this technology is difficult to implement with large-scale facilities. An alternative "gatemon" qubit has recently appeared, which uses hybrid superconducting/semiconducting (S/Sm) devices as gate-tuned Josephson junctions. Current implementations of these use nanowires however, of which the large-scale fabrication has not yet matured either. A scalable gatemon design could be made with CMOS Josephson Field-Effect Transistors as tunable weak link, where an ideal device has leads with a large superconducting gap that contact a short channel through high-transparency interfaces. High transparency, or low contact resistance, is achieved in the microelectronics industry with silicides, of which some turn out to be superconducting. The first part of the experimental work in this thesis covers material studies on two such materials: V3Si and PtSi, which are interesting for their high Tc, and mature integration, respectively. The second part covers experimental results on 50 nm gate length PtSi transistors, where the transparency of the S/Sm interfaces is modulated by the gate voltage. At low voltages, the transport shows no conductance at low energy, and well-defined features at the superconducting gap. The barrier height at the S/Sm interface is reduced by increasing the gate voltage, until a zero-bias peak appears around zero drain voltage, which reveals the appearance of an Andreev current. The successful gate modulation of Andreev current in a silicon-based transistor represents a step towards fully CMOS-integrated superconducting quantum computers.
Superconducting qubit based on superconducting circuits consist of a superconducting capacitor and a Josephson junction with the transmon geometry is extensively used in advanced quantum processors, pursuing scalable quantum computing. The tuning of the qubit frequency of the transmon relies on magnetic flux-dependent interference between the supercurrents of two superconductor-insulator-superconductor (S-I-S) Josephson junctions in a superconducting loop. Josephson junction based on superconductor-semiconductor-superconductor (S-Sm-S) materials opens up a possibility to the gate-tunable transmon, referred to as the "gatemon", in which the qubit frequency can be tuned by electrostatic mean. Recent realizations of gatemons on III-V material platforms show impressive development on the alternative to the transmon, yet still leave a big question on the scalability. The silicon-germanium (SiGe) heterostructure is one of the potential platforms to host hybrid devices due to its high hole mobility and the low Schottky barrier at the Ge-metal interface. Additionally, the compatibility with the silicon-based semiconductor industry is a capable advantage for the scaling-up qubit platform.In this thesis, we develop gatemons based on the Al-Ge-Al Josephson junction in the SiGe heterostructure. Firstly, the robust fabrication recipe, found on a top-down approach, for Josephson Field Effect Transistors (JoFETs) is established. We perform measurements exhaustively on the JoFETs to study their properties as a function of the gate voltage, temperature, and magnetic field. The devices show gate-tunability of the critical current and the normal state resistance . The devices are estimated to have a high-transparency superconductor-semiconductor interface, as demonstrated by the high product on the SiGe heterostructure. In the finite-voltage regime, the features corresponded to multiple Andreev reflections (MARs) are observed. Then, we fabricate and characterize niobium nitride (NbN) superconducting resonators on SiGe heterostructure. We measure the resonators in the transmission mode and extract the resonant frequency , internal quality factor, and coupling quality factor from the transmission coefficient. Following that, we develop the fabrication process to integrate Al-Ge-Al junctions shunted with capacitors, or, in other words, gatemon, into the resonator scheme and perform the fabrication according to the design. We demonstrate the anticrossing feature in one of the fabricated gatemons. The resonant frequency of the gatemon is mapped using the two-tone spectroscopy technique and is found to be gate-tunable. The qubit has large spectral linewidth, implying a low coherence time. Additionally, we conduct the current-phase relationship (CPR) measurement on the junctions in the Superconducting QUantum Interference Device (SQUID) geometry. We can demonstrate that the junctions pose non-sinusoidal CPR. Further, the integer and half-integer Shapiro steps are observed in the current-voltage characteristic curves of irradiated junctions. This indicates that our junctions have the element, which can open up another possibility toward protected qubits.
Circuits supraconducteurs en technologie silicium L’évolution de la fabrication et l’exploitation des ordinateurs quantiques est essentielle pour dépasser l’ère NISQ. Jusqu’à présent, les qubits transmon supraconducteurs basés sur des jonctions tunnel Josephson en aluminium ont donné les résultats les plus avancés, bien que cette technologie soit difficile à mettre en oeuvre dans des installations à grande échelle.Un autre qubit "gatemon" est apparu récemment, qui utilise des dispositifs hybrides supraconducteurs/semiconducteurs (S/Sm) comme jonctions Josephson accordées par un contrôle électrostatique. Cependant, les implémentations actuelles de ces dispositifs utilisent des nanofils, dont la fabrication à grande échelle n’a pas encore atteint sa maturité. Une conception évolutive de gatemon pourrait être réalisée avec des transistors à effet de champ Josephson CMOS comme lien faible accordable, où un dispositif idéal est constitué de réservoirs supraconducteurs qui contactent un canal court par des interfaces à haute transparence. Une transparence élevée, ou une faible résistance de contact,est obtenue dans l’industrie de la microélectronique avec des siliciures, dont certains s’avèrent être supraconducteurs. La première partie du travail expérimental de cette thèse couvre les études de matériaux sur deux de ces matériaux : V3Si et PtSi, qui sont intéressants pour leur Tc élevé, et leur intégration mature. La deuxième partie couvre des résultats expérimentaux sur des transistors PtSi de longueur de grille 50nm, où la transparence des interfaces S/Sm est modulée par la tension de grille. A basse tension,le transport ne montre aucune conductance à basse énergie, et des pics de cohérence bien définis au niveau du gap supraconducteur. La hauteur de la barrière à l’interfaceS/Sm est réduite en augmentant la tension de grille, jusqu’à ce qu’un pic de conductance apparaisse autour d’une tension de drain nulle, ce qui révèle l’apparition d’un courant d’Andreev. La modulation du courant d’Andreev par une grille dans un transistor à base de silicium, représente une étape vers des ordinateurs quantiques supraconducteurs entièrement intégrés en CMOS.
Superconducting qubit based on superconducting circuits consist of a superconducting capacitor and a Josephson junction with the transmon geometry is extensively used in advanced quantum processors, pursuing scalable quantum computing. The tuning of the qubit frequency of the transmon relies on magnetic flux dependent interference between the supercurrents of two superconductor-insulator superconductor(S-I-S) Josephson junctions in a superconducting loop. Josephson junction based on superconductor-semiconductor-superconductor (S-Sm-S) materialsopens up a possibility to the gate-tunable transmon, referred to as the "gatemon", in which the qubit frequency can be tuned by electrostatic mean. Recent realizations of gatemons on III-V material platforms show impressive development on the alternative to the transmon, yet still leave a big question on the scalability. The silicon-germanium (SiGe) heterostructure is one of the potential platforms to host hybrid devices due to its high hole mobility and the low Schottky barrier at the Ge-metal interface. Additionally, the compatibility with the silicon-based semiconductor industry is a capable advantage for the scaling-up qubit platform.In this thesis, we develop gatemons based on the Al-Ge-Al Josephson junction in the SiGe heterostructure. Firstly, the robust fabrication recipe, found on a top down approach, for Josephson Field Effect Transistors (JoFETs) is established. We perform measurements exhaustively on the JoFETs to study their properties as a function of the gate voltage, temperature, and magnetic field. The devices show gate-tunability of the critical current (IC) and the normal state resistance (RN). The devices are estimated to have a high-transparency superconductor/semiconductor interface, as demonstrated by the high ICRN product on the SiGe heterostructure. In the finite-voltage regime, the features corresponded to multiple Andreev reflections (MARs) are observed. Then, we fabricate and characterize niobium nitride (NbN) superconducting resonators on SiGe heterostructure. We measure the resonators in the transmission mode and extract the resonant frequency (fr), internal quality factor (Qi), and coupling quality factor (Qc) from the transmission coefficient (S21). Following that, we develop the fabrication process to integrate Al-Ge-Al junctions shunted with capacitors, or, in other words,gatemon, into the resonator scheme and perform the fabrication according to the design. We demonstrate the anticrossing feature in one of the fabricated gatemons. The resonant frequency of the gatemon is mapped using the two-tone spectroscopy technique and is found to be gate-tunable. The qubit has large spectral linewidth, implying a low coherence time. Additionally, we conduct the current-phase relationship (CPR) measurement on the junctions in the Superconducting QUantum Interference Device (SQUID) geometry. We can demonstrate that the junctions pose non-sinusoidal CPR. Further, the integer and half-integer Shapiro steps are observed in the current-voltage characteristic curves of irradiated junctions. This indicates that our junctions have the cos 2φ element, which can open up another possibility toward protected qubits.
The technology of quantum computing is believed to solve certain computational problems significantly faster than classical computers, enabling classically inaccessible problems. However, the technology is still in its infancy and it is still too early to conclude which physical system(s) will form the basis of tomorrow's quantum computer. Small-scale quantum processors, built on the superconducting transmon qubit, demonstrated already the anticipated quantum speed-up. Despite this tremendous milestone, scaling up to a full-fledged quantum computer is far from trivial: with these qubits, the flux-control causes crosstalk between qubits and heating, the room-temperature microwave control is hardly scalable and comes with high energetic radiation, and most importantly, the loss of quantum information in time leads to computational errors. Recent advances in various hybrid semiconductor materials enabled novel voltage-controlled transmons, gatemons, which are less susceptible to heating and crosstalk. Even more exciting, gatemons can be designed to host Majorana zero modes in a way that renders the qubit inherently protected against decoherence. In order to induce Majorana zero modes in such nanowire systems strong magnetic fields are required. Problematically, magnetic fields destroy the superconductivity that these microwave circuits rely on. In this thesis we integrate three types of hybrid Josephson junctions in magnetic field compatible microwave devices. Chapter 4 demonstrates the first graphene-based transmon. Due to the mono-atomic thickness of graphene in combination with magnetic field resilient coplanar waveguide resonators, we are able to operate the transmon circuit at an in-plane magnetic field of 1 Tesla. Chapter 5 embeds an InAs-Al semiconducting nanowire Josephson junction in a high quality factor superconducting transmission line resonator, demonstrating on-chip microwave generation. The gate-controllable semiconducting platform lends itself for fast pulse control, providing a perspective for the coherent on-chip manipulation of artificial two-level systems, in particular superconducting qubits such as transmons. Chapter 6 continues the development of InAs-Al nanowire transmons. The offset-charge-sensitive regime, additional plunger gates and magnetic field compatibility prepares the platform for the detection of coherent coupling between Majorana zero modes, a phenomena which unfortunately still remains unobserved. Additionally, we realise the first InSb-Al gatemon. The higher spin-orbit coupling makes InSb to be a preferred material in the search for Majorana signatures. Chapter 7 reports on the dynamics of quasiparticle tunneling events in real-time across the InAs-Al nanowire junction in a transmon architecture. The magnetic field compatibility of our device up to 1 Tesla together with in-situ voltage-controlled quasiparticle trap engineering, allows us to measure the survival of the charge-parity lifetime up to strong magnetic fields. A result which is extremely important in the research field of topological quantum computing, where the qubit space is defined in the charge-parity.
A practical quantum computer demands a physical quantum bit (qubit) that is scalable, has a well-defined initial state, and brings together coherence with reliable control and read-out. A compelling idea is to put together a locally protected Majorana qubit with a superconducting qubit. The superconducting qubit is used to read out the Majorana states while the Majorana qubit may act as a quantum memory. This thesis presents a series of studies on quantum transport in semiconducting nanowires coupled to superconductors to investigate various platforms for realizing Majorana. These studies are followed by microwave measurements on superconducting circuits compatible with semiconducting-superconducting heterostructures. We first evaluate the potential of Ge/Si core/shell nanowires by achieving induced superconductivity as well as estimating spin-orbit coupling. Next we explore the transport mediated by Andreev bound states formed in InSb nanowire quantum. A subgap negative differential conductance is investigated together with the coalescing Andreev resonances at zero bias relevant for the correct interpretation of Majorana experiments done on the same structures. We conclude our studies of semiconducting nanowires by exploring tunnel junctions in Sn-InSb nanowires that are prepared by in-situ shadowing using nearby nanowires and flakes. Tin shells are found to induce a hard superconducting gap persisting up to high magnetic fields. We observe the two-electron charging effect from a small superconducting island of Sn-InSb. This effect is attributed to charge parity stability, which makes this nanowire system an intriguing candidate for superconducting and topological quantum circuits. These Sn-InSb junctions are then used as the nonlinear element in a transmon qubit design where we observe a dispersive coupling between this nanowire Josephson junction and a superconducting resonator. We also present our progress towards building a magnetic field resilient superconducting circuit that allows integration with semiconducting and topological structures. In the last chapter, InSb semiconducting nanowires are utilized as shadow masks prior to superconductor deposition on an InAs quantum well. We study Josephson current properties in Josephson junctions made from these nanowire shadows. Our results point to highly transparent junctions that can be developed further for hybrid superconductor-semiconductor qubit systems.
The superconducting transistor, or Josephson Field Effect Transistor (JoFET), is a versatile building block for ultra-low-power and high-energy-efficiency classical and quantum electronics. In a JoFET, the superconducting (zero-resistance) current is controlled by electrostatic gate voltage, which enables the scalability of solid-state quantum computers and the creation of next-generation superconducting integrated circuits (ICs). The development of JoFETs has so far been limited to single devices or a few-transistor circuits due to the lack of reproducible technological platform. Here, we report on technological progress of wafer-scale JoFET fabrication, achieving a 98% yield on a 150 mm wafer platform. Now that the large-scale and reproducible fabrication JoFETs has become feasible, we present behavioral and physics models as the required steps toward the design of novel JoFET-based ICs. Using the presented models, we obtain a good description of experimental data, thus paving the way for the design of next-generation superconducting ICs.