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arXiv:1105.1579 · Classical and Quantum Gravity

Schrödinger–Newton ‘collapse’ of the wavefunction

James R. van Meter

Published Sep 22, 2011• 52 citations
arXivHTMLPDF

Abstract

It has been suggested that the nonlinear Schrödinger–Newton equation might approximate the coupling of quantum mechanics with gravitation, particularly in the context of the Møller–Rosenfeld semiclassical theory. Numerical results for the spherically symmetric, time-dependent, single-particle case are presented, clarifying and extending previous work on the subject. It is found that, for a particle mass greater than 1.14(ℏ 2 /( G σ)) 1/3 , a wave packet of width σ partially 'collapses' to a groundstate solution found by Moroz, Penrose and Tod, with excess probability dispersing away. However, for a mass less than 1.14(ℏ 2 /( G σ)) 1/3 , the entire wave packet appears to spread like a free particle, albeit more slowly. It is argued that, on some scales (lower than the Planck scale), this theory predicts significant deviation from conventional (linear) quantum mechanics. However, owing to the difficulty of controlling quantum coherence on one hand, and the weakness of gravity on the other, definitive experimental falsification poses a technologically formidable challenge.

DOI
10.1088/0264-9381/28/21/215013

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It has been suggested that the nonlinear Schrödinger–Newton equation might approximate the coupling of quantum mechanics with gravitation, particularly in the context of the Møller–Rosenfeld semiclassical theory. Numerical results for the spherically symmetric, time-dependent, single-particle case are presented, clarifying and extending previous work on the subject. It is found that, for a particle mass greater than 1.14(ℏ 2 /( G σ)) 1/3 , a wave packet of width σ partially 'collapses' to a groundstate solution found by Moroz, Penrose and Tod, with excess probability dispersing away. However, for a mass less than 1.14(ℏ 2 /( G σ)) 1/3 , the entire wave packet appears to spread like a free particle, albeit more slowly. It is argued that, on some scales (lower than the Planck scale), this theory predicts significant deviation from conventional (linear) quantum mechanics. However, owing to the difficulty of controlling quantum coherence on one hand, and the weakness of gravity on the other, definitive experimental falsification poses a technologically formidable challenge.
Abstract We probe the dynamics of a modified form of the Schrödinger–Newton (SN) system of gravity coupled to single particle quantum mechanics. At the masses of interest here, the ones associated with the onset of ‘collapse’ (where the gravitational attraction is competitive with the quantum mechanical dissipation), we show that the Schrödinger ground state energies match the Dirac ones with an error of . At the Planck mass scale, we predict the critical mass at which a potential collapse could occur for the self-coupled gravitational case, Planck mass, and show that gravitational attraction opposes Gaussian spreading at around this value, which is a factor of two higher than the one predicted (and verified) for the SN system. Unlike the SN dynamics, we do not find that the self-coupled case tends to decay towards its ground state; there is no collapse in this case.
We examine the origin of the Newton–Schrödinger equations (NSEs) that play an important role in alternative quantum theories (AQT), macroscopic quantum mechanics and gravity-induced decoherence. We show that NSEs for individual particles do not follow from general relativity (GR) plus quantum field theory (QFT). Contrary to what is commonly assumed, the NSEs are not the weak-field (WF), non-relativistic (NR) limit of the semi-classical Einstein equation (SCE) (this nomenclature is preferred over the 'Moller–Rosenfeld equation') based on GR+QFT. The wave-function in the NSEs makes sense only as that for a mean field describing a system of N particles as , not that of a single or finite many particles. From GR+QFT the gravitational self-interaction leads to mass renormalization, not to a non-linear term in the evolution equations of some AQTs. The WF-NR limit of the gravitational interaction in GR+QFT involves no dynamics. To see the contrast, we give a derivation of the equation (i) governing the many-body wave function from GR+QFT and (ii) for the non-relativistic limit of quantum electrodynamics. They have the same structure, being linear, and very different from NSEs. Adding to this our earlier consideration that for gravitational decoherence the master equations based on GR+QFT lead to decoherence in the energy basis and not in the position basis, despite some AQTs desiring it for the 'collapse of the wave function', we conclude that the origins and consequences of NSEs are very different, and should be clearly demarcated from those of the SCE equation, the only legitimate representative of semiclassical gravity, based on GR+QFT.
The evolution of the center-of-mass wave function for a mesoscopic particle according to the Schr\"odinger-Newton equation can be approximated by a harmonic potential if the wave function is narrow compared to the size of the mesoscopic particle. It was noticed by Colin et al. [Phys. Rev. A 93, 062102 (2016).] that, in the regime where self-gravitational effects are weak, intermediate and wider wave functions may be approximated by a harmonic potential as well but with a width-dependent coupling, leading to a time evolution that is determined only by a differential equation for the width of a Gaussian wave function as a single parameter. Such an approximation results in considerably less computational effort in order to predict the self-gravitational effects on the wave-function dynamics. Here, we provide an alternative approach to this kind of approximation, including a rigorous derivation of the equations of motion for an initially Gaussian wave packet under the assumption that its shape is conserved. Our result deviates to some degree from the result by Colin et al. [Phys. Rev. A 93, 062102 (2016).], specifically in the limit of wide wave functions.
We investigate dynamical relaxation to the Born rule in a semiclassical gravity model described by the Schrödinger-Newton equations. Using a Gaussian variational solution for the self-gravitating wave packet, combined with Nelson's stochastic representation of quantum dynamics, we track the evolution of particle ensembles whose initial probability distribution differs from ∣Ψ∣2|Ψ|^2∣Ψ∣2. Relaxation to the Born rule ("quantum equilibrium") occurs when the wave packet remains bounded, or grows sufficiently slowly in time; in contrast, for rapidly expanding solutions of the Schrödinger-Newton equations, deviations from the Born rule can persist indefinitely. Numerical simulations confirm this analytical picture. These results show that semiclassical self-gravity can either enable or inhibit relaxation towards the Born rule, providing a minimal model relevant to proposals of primordial quantum non-equilibrium, as suggested by Underwood and Valentini [Phys. Rev. D 92, 063531 (2015)].
The necessity of quantising the gravitational field is still subject to an open debate. In this paper we compare the approach of quantum gravity, with that of a fundamentally semi-classical theory of gravity, in the weak-field non-relativistic limit. We show that, while in the former case the Schrödinger equation stays linear, in the latter case one ends up with the so-called Schrödinger-Newton equation, which involves a nonlinear, non-local gravitational contribution. We further discuss that the Schrödinger-Newton equation does not describe the collapse of the wave-function, although it was initially proposed for exactly this purpose. Together with the standard collapse postulate, fundamentally semi-classical gravity gives rise to superluminal signalling. A consistent fundamentally semi-classical theory of gravity can therefore only be achieved together with a suitable prescription of the wave-function collapse. We further discuss, how collapse models avoid such superluminal signalling and compare the nonlinearities appearing in these models with those in the Schrödinger-Newton equation.
We reconsider the time-dependent Schrödinger–Newton equation as a model for the self-gravitational interaction of a quantum system. We numerically locate the onset of gravitationally induced inhibitions of dispersion of Gaussian wave packets and find them to occur at mass values more than six orders of magnitude higher than reported by Salzman and Carlip (Salzman and Carlip 2006, arXiv:gr-qc/0606120, Carlip 2008 Class. Quantum Grav. 25 107–44), namely at about 10 10 u. This fits much better to simple analytical estimates but unfortunately also questions the experimental realizability of the proposed laboratory test of quantum gravity in the foreseeable future, not just because of large masses, but also because of the need to provide sufficiently long coherence times.