The rapid development of digital communications, cloud computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), and integrated data systems has raised concerns about securely and reliably protecting sensitive information transmitted over public and private networks.The security of cryptographic schemes such as Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) relies mainly on the inherent hardness of the underlying mathematical problem.Yet the ABSTRACT: This paper evaluates a simulated quantum security pipeline integrating a Quantum Random Number Generator (QRNG), BB84 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), and Quantum One-Time Pad (QOTP) bitwise XOR encryption.Developed using IBM Qiskit v0.45 within a controlled environment using a seed value of 12345, the proposed framework addresses the lack of multi-stage randomness testing across quantum cryptographic workflows.The execution follows a four-stage sequential workflow starting with QRNG bit generation and entropy verification, which provides the groundwork and measurement bases for BB84.Next, BB84 QKD handles qubit transmission, basis sifting, paritycheck error correction, and Toeplitz matrix hashing for privacy amplification to extract the secret key.The derived key is then used for bitwise QOTP encryption and decryption.Finally, the pipeline undergoes multi-stage statistical validation at the raw QRNG, privacy-amplified key, and ciphertext levels.Across 1,000 independent runs with 10 6 -bit systems, the framework achieved a 98.4% overall pass rate on selected NIST SP 800-22 tests at a 0.01 significance level.Under a depolarizing noise model, the Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) remained ≤ 4.2%.Using finite-key evaluation and composable security principles, the system maintained statistical integrity across all stages.The findings demonstrate a successful simulation-based proof-of-concept rather than a hardware-ready solution.Future research will focus on executing the pipeline on physical quantum hardware and evaluating performance under realistic channel loss models.
The rapid development of digital communications, cloud computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), and integrated data systems has raised concerns about securely and reliably protecting sensitive information transmitted over public and private networks.The security of cryptographic schemes such as Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) relies mainly on the inherent hardness of the underlying mathematical problem.Yet the ABSTRACT: This paper evaluates a simulated quantum security pipeline integrating a Quantum Random Number Generator (QRNG), BB84 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), and Quantum One-Time Pad (QOTP) bitwise XOR encryption.Developed using IBM Qiskit v0.45 within a controlled environment using a seed value of 12345, the proposed framework addresses the lack of multi-stage randomness testing across quantum cryptographic workflows.The execution follows a four-stage sequential workflow starting with QRNG bit generation and entropy verification, which provides the groundwork and measurement bases for BB84.Next, BB84 QKD handles qubit transmission, basis sifting, paritycheck error correction, and Toeplitz matrix hashing for privacy amplification to extract the secret key.The derived key is then used for bitwise QOTP encryption and decryption.Finally, the pipeline undergoes multi-stage statistical validation at the raw QRNG, privacy-amplified key, and ciphertext levels.Across 1,000 independent runs with 10 6 -bit systems, the framework achieved a 98.4% overall pass rate on selected NIST SP 800-22 tests at a 0.01 significance level.Under a depolarizing noise model, the Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) remained ≤ 4.2%.Using finite-key evaluation and composable security principles, the system maintained statistical integrity across all stages.The findings demonstrate a successful simulation-based proof-of-concept rather than a hardware-ready solution.Future research will focus on executing the pipeline on physical quantum hardware and evaluating performance under realistic channel loss models.
The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses a serious threat to traditional cryptographic systems such as RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), which rely on computational difficulty for security. Quantum algorithms like Shor’s and Grover’s have the potential to break or weaken these methods, putting modern communication systems at risk. To address this challenge, this work presents a quantum-safe com-munication framework that combines the BB84 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) protocol with Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) techniques, aiming to ensure secure data exchange in the presence of quantum-capable adversaries. In this system, the BB84 protocol is simulated to enable secure key exchange between two parties over a virtual quantum channel. The generated key is refined through processes such as basis matching, error correction, and privacy amplification using SHA-256 to ensure reliability and secrecy. For secur-ing communication, One-Time Pad (OTP) encryption is used alongside HMAC-SHA3-256 to provide both confidentiality and message integrity. Additionally, file encryption is handled using the XChaCha20-Poly1305 algorithm, selected for its efficiency and strong protection against potential vulnerabilities like nonce reuse. To further enhance security, the framework integrates a hybrid key management approach using the Kyber-512 Key Encapsulation Mechanism (KEM) combined with a Key Deriva-tion Function (KDF), merging classical and quantum-resistant techniques. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the system, achieving a Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) of 2.5% and successful performance in both message and file en-cryption. Overall, this work contributes toward the development of practical and resilient communication systems designed for the emerging quantum era.
Secure communication has become essential due to the rapid increase in cyber-attacks and data security threats in modern networks. Traditional communication systems mainly rely on classical security methods, which may become vulnerable to advanced attacks. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) improves secure communication by generating cryptographic keys using quantum principles, making key interception extremely difficult. In this work, a Quantum Random Number Generator (QRNG) is integrated with classical communication to develop a hybrid quantum-classical communication framework. The QRNG generates highly random bits that improve authentication, randomness, and key security. The proposed system compares three QKD protocols: BB84, B92, and E91 using different bit sizes of 8000, 10000, and 13000 bits. The protocols are evaluated using important metrics such as QBER, key rate, entropy, erasure rate, throughput, and correlation. Experimental results show that all protocols achieved entropy values close to 1 and correlation values near zero, indicating strong randomness and secure key generation. Among the evaluated protocols, E91 achieved lower QBER values and higher key rates, while BB84 showed stable and reliable performance. B92 produced comparatively higher error rates under similar conditions. The throughput remained nearly 278–281 bits/sec across all experiments. A ranking-based analysis confirmed that E91 provides the best balance between security, efficiency, and communication performance, making it suitable for future quantum-secure communication systems.
Abstract As quantum computing continues to demonstrate its potential to break through existing cryptographic systems, quantum key distribution (QKD) provides a novel approach to protect communications in the post-quantum era, but presents complex challenges in terms of research and widespread adoption. Although the resource-intensive nature of QKD setups limits experimental studies to specialized laboratories, we present an end-to-end simulation that models photon generation, transmission, and detection, thereby lowering the barrier to testing hypotheses regarding experimental setups under realistic conditions. In this study, a fiber optic-based simulation was utilized along with a quantum circuit and a detailed noise model within the BB84 protocol to recreate an experimental setup. Our BB84 simulation retained ≈50% of transmitted bits after sifting, matching the experimental expectations, and produced quantum bit error rate (QBER) values that rose with increasing channel length. Our model incorporates customizable noise, such as multi-photon emissions and channel disturbances, directly into the key exchange process, yielding QBER values of ≈4.5% at 20 km and ≈11% at 120 km, consistent with physical systems under the same conditions. Our findings support the development of QKD as a scalable solution for securing the quantum internet and future communication networks.
Abstract Secure military communications depend on the confidentiality of exchanged cryptographic keys across command centers, satellite links, and classified order transmission. Classical key-distribution protocols rely on computational hardness assumptions that provide no intrinsic mechanism for detecting interception; an adversary who copies transmitted ciphertext leaves no physical trace. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), and specifically the BB84 protocol, replaces this assumption with a physical guarantee derived from quantum mechanics: any attempt to measure an unknown quantum state necessarily disturbs it, rendering interception statistically detectable. This study implements the BB84 protocol at the circuit level — qubit state preparation, basis selection, interception modeling, and measurement — and validates its central security property, the Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) signature of eavesdropping, in two stages: (1) a noiseless statevector simulation using the PKTron quantum computing framework over ten independent trials per condition, and (2) hardware execution on IBM Quantum's ibm_fez superconducting processor. In simulation, the average QBER without an eavesdropper was 0.000, and with a full intercept-resend attack was 0.248, closely matching the theoretical prediction of 0.25. On real hardware, the undisturbed channel returned QBER = 0.000 (19 sifted bits) and the eavesdropped channel returned QBER = 0.261 (23 sifted bits), in close agreement with both theory and the simulated baseline. These results provide a reproducible, two-platform validation of the eavesdropper-detection mechanism that underlies the security claims made for QKD-protected communications. This study validates the cryptographic detection primitive only; it does not constitute a deployed secure communications system, and extending these results to operational command, satellite, or classified-order channels requires physical single-photon transmission hardware, authenticated classical channels, and full key-management infrastructure outside the scope of this work.
Quantum random number generators (QRNGs) play a crucial role in cryptography, secure communications, and stochastic simulations. This study presents the metrological characterization of a QRNG implemented on the Quandela photonic quantum computer, available via the cloud. The system generates random sequences using single photons and beam splitters, where quantum superposition ensures a fundamentally probabilistic outcome. A key aspect of this characterization involves defining the sample size and the number of qubits used. The Quandela quantum processor operates with up to six qubits, corresponding to six photons in twelve optical modes. However, the simultaneous use of multiple photons can introduce unintended correlations due to quantum interference, affecting the quality of randomness. To ensure independent bit generation, experiments were conducted with a single photon per measurement, producing one-bit outcomes per detection event. The analysis focuses on repeatability and reproducibility, examining the statistical properties of the generated sequences. Raw sequences underwent randomness testing using NIST SP800-22 and entropy assessment with NIST SP800-90B. Initial results indicate that raw sequences exhibit biases due to imperfections in single-photon sources and optical elements. The sequences generated by the Quandela photonic quantum processor failed most NIST SP800-22 tests, including Frequency (Global and Block), Runs, and Approximate Entropy, with six tests showing a 100% failure rate. Additionally, under the NIST SP800-90B evaluation, 100% of the raw sequences failed the independence and identically distributed (IID) test, highlighting strong correlations and statistical dependencies. To enhance randomness quality, post-processing techniques were applied, including Von Neumann and the combination Samuelson + Von Neumann extractors. These methods significantly improved bit balance and reduced statistical dependencies. After post-processing, all sequences passed the NIST SP800-90B IID test, and the entropy per bit increased to 0.771 ± 0.005 for the Ascella processor, ensuring improved randomness quality. The findings highlight the metrological challenges in QRNGs based on photonic quantum processors, emphasizing the need for rigorous statistical validation. Despite system-specific noise, the quantum origin of randomness remains preserved, ensuring that the extracted sequences retain their fundamental unpredictability. Additionally, limitations associated with photonic quantum systems, such as hardware imperfections, photon losses, and optical misalignment, are discussed in the context of their impact on randomness quality. Despite these limitations, rigorous statistical validation and post-processing enable the generation of high-quality random sequences suitable for cryptographic protocols, secure key distribution, and high-performance computing This study reinforces the importance of metrology in quantum technologies, providing a structured methodology for optimizing QRNG reliability and performance.
This paper analyzes the performance of two quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols, SARG04 and BB84, under different random quantum noise levels. It also looks at the protocols’ potential applications in Internet of Things (IoT) device security for a proposed architecture. In the proposed model, long-range photons are inherently vulnerable to quantum noise, which complicates real-world QKD implementations and jeopardizes the reliability and resilience of the secret key generation process. By simulating different noise situations, we evaluate the overall security performance, mistake rates, and key generation rates of the BB84 and SARG04 protocols. Our findings suggest that although both protocols can withstand moderate noise levels, SARG04 and BB84 perform similarly regarding secure key length. We also address the consequences of these results for the security of the Internet of Things, highlighting QKD’s role in minimizing vulnerabilities related to conventional cryptography techniques. QKD integration can improve data security and privacy in Internet of Things frameworks, offering a viable way to protect sensitive data in increasingly networked devices. This work significantly contributes to the current efforts in quantum cryptography research by providing insightful advice on protocol selection and secure IoT connectivity implementation techniques.