The Copenhagen interpretation of traditional quantum mechanics describes the behaviour of electrons within atoms using probability clouds, superposition states and instantaneous transitions, denying that electrons have definite motion orbits and continuous evolutionary processes. Based on the author’s two previous core research findings on the continuous motion of extranuclear electrons, this paper cites experimental data from state of the art attosecond ultrashort laser pulses. Through time scale matching, reconstruction of motion sequences and logical deduction constrained by experimental results, it demonstrates that electrons inside atoms possess stable, continuous and periodic orbital motion characteristics. This paper puts forward mechanical challenges to the probability cloud picture and the hypothesis of instantaneous transitions: since electrons have rest mass, any abrupt change in position must be accompanied by corresponding instantaneous external forces as well as energy input or output. An instantaneous transition implies that position change occurs without consuming finite time, which is equivalent to superluminal displacement. This hypothesis lacks a corresponding dynamical mechanism and thus involves profound physical contradictions. In contrast, the continuous motion model yields a complete and self consistent physical explanation solely based on the known Coulomb electrostatic attraction, Lorentz magnetic force and electron inertia. Current attosecond detection results are fully adequate to validate the reasonableness of prior calculations of hydrogen atom orbits and confirm the physical reality of the continuous orbital motion of electrons. This poses a fundamental challenge to the traditional interpretation featuring probability clouds and instantaneous transitions with no intermediate processes.
The Copenhagen interpretation of traditional quantum mechanics describes the behaviour of electrons within atoms using probability clouds, superposition states and instantaneous transitions, denying that electrons have definite motion orbits and continuous evolutionary processes. Based on the author’s two previous core research findings on the continuous motion of extranuclear electrons, this paper cites experimental data from state of the art attosecond ultrashort laser pulses. Through time scale matching, reconstruction of motion sequences and logical deduction constrained by experimental results, it demonstrates that electrons inside atoms possess stable, continuous and periodic orbital motion characteristics. This paper puts forward mechanical challenges to the probability cloud picture and the hypothesis of instantaneous transitions: since electrons have rest mass, any abrupt change in position must be accompanied by corresponding instantaneous external forces as well as energy input or output. An instantaneous transition implies that position change occurs without consuming finite time, which is equivalent to superluminal displacement. This hypothesis lacks a corresponding dynamical mechanism and thus involves profound physical contradictions. In contrast, the continuous motion model yields a complete and self consistent physical explanation solely based on the known Coulomb electrostatic attraction, Lorentz magnetic force and electron inertia. Current attosecond detection results are fully adequate to validate the reasonableness of prior calculations of hydrogen atom orbits and confirm the physical reality of the continuous orbital motion of electrons. This poses a fundamental challenge to the traditional interpretation featuring probability clouds and instantaneous transitions with no intermediate processes.
The interior of an atom is an ultrahigh vacuum environment free of medium resistance and energy dissipation. The longterm stable motion of extranuclear electrons relies fundamentally on a continuous, realtime, and synchronous dynamic equilibrium among three interactions: the Coulomb electrostatic attraction from the atomic nucleus, the Lorentz magnetic force generated by the highspeed motion of electrons, and the inertia of electrons themselves. This paper rigorously proves that due to rest mass and inertia, the electron trajectory is neither an ideal perfect circle nor a fixed planar ellipse in celestial mechanics. Planets in the solar system, driven only by universal gravitation and inertia, are confined to motion in a fixed plane and cannot achieve threedimensional spatial deflection. In contrast, electrons are subject to a Lorentz magnetic force perpendicular to the radial Coulomb force, which continuously alters the orbital inclination and direction of motion, enabling 360° omnidirectional spatial orbital motion without a fixed plane or fixed inclination. The macroscopically observed electron cloud is not a random probability distribution, but a longterm trajectory coverage effect of deterministic continuous electron motion. Energy level changes of electrons appear as continuously smooth orbital adjustments, with no instantaneous quantum jumps or teleportation. If, as assumed by traditional quantum mechanics, electrons exhibited discontinuous transitions, probability superposition, or wavefunction collapse, electron motion would be forcibly interrupted, the Lorentz magnetic force would vanish immediately, the threeforce equilibrium would be completely destroyed, and the atom would collapse rapidly, making stable matter impossible. This paper returns to the unified logic of classical mechanics and electromagnetism, restores the continuous, deterministic, and predictable physical nature of microscopic particles, and provides core theoretical support for constructing a unified physical framework connecting macroscopic and microscopic worlds.
Based solely on internationally recognized laboratory measured data of the ground-state hydrogen atom, this paper conducts complete calculation and logical derivation of the whole process of electron orbital motion. The whole process includes all core parameters and derivation processes, such as orbital circumference, revolutions per second, equivalent plane square calculation of flattened spherical surface, total number of orbital positions and spatial traversal times, abandoning all subjective assumptions and complex solid geometry disputes. The research clearly shows that the electron has a unique and fixed orbital position at every moment, without quantum superposition state or spontaneous transition. The so-called electron cloud is only the trajectory coverage effect formed by the ultra-high-speed motion of electrons; the so-called quantum superposition state and quantum transition are both misunderstandings of classical deterministic orbital motion. Based on measured data, this paper negates the core hypotheses of electron cloud, superposition state and quantum transition in quantum mechanics with verifiable calculation and logic, proving that electrons are always in deterministic orbital motion, and the stability of atoms is completely governed by classical mechanical rules.
The interior of an atom is an ultra-high vacuum environment without medium, resistance, or energy dissipation. The long-term stability of extranuclear electrons relies on the continuous, real-time, and synchronous dynamic equilibrium between the Coulomb electrostatic attraction from the atomic nucleus and the electromagnetic repulsion generated by the high-speed motion of electrons. This paper clearly demonstrates that, due to its mass and inertia, an electron cannot follow an ideal circular orbit, nor can it move in a fixed-plane elliptical orbit as in astrophysics. Instead, the electron continuously changes its motion inclination in three-dimensional space, exhibiting a 360° omnidirectional three-dimensional circumferential motion with no fixed plane and multi-angle deflection. The long-term trajectory coverage forms the macroscopic illusion of an “electron cloud”, which is essentially not a probabilistic random distribution but a superposition of deterministic continuous motion trajectories. Meanwhile, electron energy level transition is a fully continuous orbital change along a curved path, without instantaneous jumping or teleportation. This theory restores the real, predictable, and continuous mechanical nature of microscopic particles.
Inside an atom is an ultra-high vacuum environment with no medium, no resistance, and no energy loss. The long-term stability of extranuclear electrons relies on the real-time, continuous dynamic equilibrium between the Coulomb electrostatic attraction from the atomic nucleus and the electromagnetic repulsion generated by the high-speed motion of electrons. This paper clearly points out that due to mass and inertia, the electron orbit cannot be an ideal circle, nor a planar ellipse as in astrophysics. Electrons continuously change their motion inclination in three-dimensional space, showing a 360° omnidirectional stereo circulation without a fixed plane or fixed angle. The long-term trajectory coverage forms the macroscopic illusion of an “electron cloud”, which is essentially the superposition of deterministic continuous motion rather than probabilistic random distribution. Meanwhile, electron energy level transition is a continuous arc orbital change process without instantaneous jumping or teleportation. This theory restores the real, predictable, and continuous mechanical nature of microscopic particles.
This paper re-examines the mechanism of electron motion inside atoms and the causes of photon radiation and photon absorption, abandoning the inherent cognition of fixed electron orbits and quantum transitions in traditional atomic physics. It clarifies that electrons have no physical fixed orbits; orbits are only imaginary concepts constructed for convenience of description, not objective physical realities. With mass, electrons possess inertia and kinetic energy. Under the three-force equilibrium of Coulomb force, electromagnetic force and inertial effect, electrons naturally move in elliptical trajectories rather than regular circles. When an electron moves along an elliptical trajectory, it naturally passes through low-energy regions near the atomic nucleus and high-energy regions far from the nucleus. This change in position arises entirely from its own inertia, involving only the conversion between kinetic energy and potential energy. The electron neither gains nor loses total energy, so it emits no photons and undergoes no energy-level change. An electron loses total energy when emitting a photon outward, and transitions smoothly and continuously to a lower overall motion range under mechanical equilibrium and inertia. Meanwhile, an electron can also absorb external photons and gain energy; its total energy increases, and it similarly expands smoothly to a higher motion range. Photon energy is indivisible and can only be emitted or absorbed as a complete unit. This is the fundamental reason why atoms show discrete emission and absorption spectra. Electron motion is entirely smooth and continuous; instantaneous quantum transitions assumed in traditional physics do not exist. Based on classical mechanics and energy conservation, this paper unifies the laws of macroscopic celestial bodies and microscopic particles, and reconstructs an atomic motion model closer to the essential nature of physics.
The mainstream interpretation of quantum mechanics adopts the probability cloud interpretation to describe the motion of extranuclear electrons. It denies the continuous real orbit of electrons, attributes atomic magnetic moment to the intrinsic property of particles, and explains atomic spectra as traceless spontaneous energy level transitions of electrons. It presupposes that atoms can only absorb photons with energy strictly equal to the energy level difference. Based on the unified physical framework of the Light Source Theory, this paper demonstrates that extranuclear electrons have stable and continuous real orbits of revolution. The centripetal force of the electron orbit is dominated by Coulomb attraction, and gravitational force at atomic scale is negligible. The centripetal force is always perpendicular to the instantaneous motion direction of the electron and does not do work. Only mutual conversion between kinetic energy and electric potential energy inside the system occurs on the elliptical orbit, and there is no spontaneous radiation loss in steady revolution. The constraint for an atom to absorb a photon is that the polarization angle of the photon matches the polarization orientation of the electron orbit, and there is no requirement for the photon energy to correspond to the energy level difference. As long as the polarization matches, photons of any energy can be absorbed. Low energy photons can be absorbed multiple times to accumulate energy gradually, and high energy photons can also be absorbed once to raise the stored energy directly. The orbit adjusts continuously with the change of energy. When the accumulated energy reaches the inherent energy level limit of the atomic system, the original orbit configuration can no longer bear higher stored energy, and the atom releases characteristic photons with fixed energy to form discrete spectra. There is no one to one energy equivalence relationship between absorbed photons and emitted photons, which is the core reason why atomic spectra can be observed and distinguished from background light in the environment. The magnetic field of permanent magnets and the magnetization of materials originate from the directional orbital revolution of electrons. The probability cloud and traceless transition are only mathematical fitting schemes adapted to spectral data rather than physical reality. This interpretation has inherent contradictions such as unexplainable origin of magnetic field, equivalent superluminal transition and Coulomb gravitational collapse. Macroscopic and microscopic phenomena follow unified causal laws, and there are no special motion rules exclusive to quantum systems. Atoms present a spherical three dimensional structure. Extranuclear electrons revolve three dimensionally in spherical space under the three force balance of Coulomb force inertia effect and magnetic force which are perpendicular to each other in pairs. If there is no real orbit, magnetic force has no source of generation, and electrons can only move in a single plane, which cannot explain the spherical shape of atoms. This constitutes an important question to the probability cloud interpretation.