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The Whole Can Be Better Known Than Its Parts ── The von Neumann Entropy as a Third Address: What It Means for a Conditional Entropy to Be Negative ── [Paper 162]

Yuuki Yamagishi

Published Aug 25, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

There are states about which the whole is completely known and the parts are not known at all. Paper 88 wrote that under the single word entropy there are two different quantities, the coarse-grained one and the horizon-area one. This paper adds a third address: the von Neumann entropy. NO NEW PHYSICAL LAW IS CLAIMED. The von Neumann entropy, subadditivity, the Araki-Lieb triangle inequality and the negativity of the conditional entropy are all standard. Nothing in Paper 88 is retracted: the separation of the two entropies stands, and a third is simply added. First, it is not Shannon's entropy quantised. Shannon's entropy requires a probability distribution, and a quantum state does not come with one, since a different distribution appears for each basis one measures in. Collecting the Shannon quantity over twenty thousand measurement bases for random single-qubit mixed states, the value measured in the eigenbasis equalled the von Neumann entropy to machine precision, with a difference of zero in all four cases, while random bases only approached it from above. The von Neumann entropy is therefore the smallest Shannon quantity obtainable by measurement: in any other basis, more disorder is reported than the state actually holds. The two start from different data - Shannon is handed a distribution and returns a number, while von Neumann is handed a state and chooses the distribution himself. Second, unitary evolution does not change it at all. Over four thousand random four-dimensional density matrices and random unitaries, the largest change was 2.33 times ten to the minus fifteen. It is exactly conserved for a closed system. So the von Neumann entropy cannot by itself be the arrow of time: the arrow requires something non-unitary, a partial trace, a measurement or a coarse-graining (Papers 77, 78 and 88). Third, and this is the core. The whole can carry less than a part. For the singlet state the entropy of the pair is zero, being a pure state, while either half alone has entropy 0.6931471806, that is the natural logarithm of two. Classically this cannot happen: drawing two hundred thousand random two-by-two joint distributions and measuring the entropy of the whole minus the larger of the two parts, the smallest value found was 0.007226 and it was never once negative. Classically, knowing the whole includes knowing the parts; quantum mechanically it does not, and there are states about which the pair is completely known and either half alone is not known at all. This is not a statement that quantum systems are more disordered: an entropy of zero for the pair says there is no disorder whatever. It says only that the information has been placed in the correlation rather than in the parts. Fourth, the conditional entropy therefore turns negative. For the singlet it is minus 0.6931471806, that is minus the logarithm of two, while over the same two hundred thousand classical draws the smallest value was 0.009555. The classical conditional entropy is bounded below by zero and the quantum one reaches minus the logarithm of two - the two do not even share a sign convention, being written with the same symbol and called by the same name while having different ranges. Negative entropy is not a figure of speech but has an operational meaning, readable as a resource for future use in quantum state merging; this paper does not enter that interpretation, since what can be written is that the value is negative, and its address. Fifth, what stands in its place. Over twenty thousand random two-qubit states of random rank, subadditivity and the Araki-Lieb triangle inequality were violated zero times, and the singlet lies exactly on the boundary of the triangle inequality, the difference between the parts being zero and the whole being zero as well. The classical inequality is not weakened but replaced. The census. The coarse-grained entropy lives in the observer's resolution and is moved by changing the coarse-graining (Papers 77, 78, 88). The horizon-area entropy lives in the boundary area and dimension and is moved by changing the area (Papers 73, 88). The von Neumann entropy lives in the spectrum of the density matrix and is moved only by a non-unitary operation. Three quantities under one word: the first lives in the observer, the second in the boundary, and the third in the state itself. Of the three, only the third is unchanged by the passage of time. Entanglement entropy is known to obey an area law in field theory, so there is a rhyme between the third and the second. This paper does not write that they share a root: one is fixed by the choice of subsystem, the other by geometry. The line Paper 88 drew, that the only relation is a bound, is not crossed here either. IMPORTANT (scope): a census of established standard material (Layer 2). What is not claimed: any new physical law (there is none) / any retraction of Paper 88 (there is none) / an interpretation of negative entropy (not entered). What is added: measuring that the eigenbasis Shannon quantity equals the von Neumann entropy, checking unitary invariance numerically, confirming on two hundred thousand samples that the classical inequality never fails and setting it against the quantum minus logarithm of two, and writing for each of the three entropies what must be moved for it to move. What remains: there are states about which the whole is completely known and the parts are not known at all. In classical language that sentence contradicts itself. It does not contradict itself because the information has been placed not in the parts but between them. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- 全体について完全に知っていながら、部分については何も知らない——そういう状態がある。 論文88 は「エントロピー」という一語のもとに二つの別物——粗視化のものと地平線の面積のもの——があると書いた。本稿は第三の住所を加える:フォン・ノイマンのエントロピーである。新しい物理法則は主張しない。フォン・ノイマンのエントロピー、劣加法性、荒木=リーブの三角不等式、条件付きエントロピーの負値は、いずれも標準的な内容である。⚠️ また論文88 の内容を撤回しない——二つのエントロピーの分離はそのままで、三つ目を足すだけである。 第一に、これはシャノンを「量子化」したものではない。シャノンのエントロピーには確率分布が要る。ところが量子状態には、分布が一つ付いてはいない——どの基底で測るかによって違う分布が出るからである。無作為な一量子ビットの混合状態について二万通りの基底で測ってみると、固有基底で測ったときのシャノン量がフォン・ノイマンのエントロピーに機械精度で一致し(四例とも差ゼロ)、無作為な基底は上からしか近づかなかった。すなわちフォン・ノイマンのエントロピーは「測ったときのシャノン量の最小値」である。どの基底で測っても、状態が実際に持っている以上の乱雑さが報告される。⭐ 出発点が違うのである——シャノンは分布を渡されて数を返し、フォン・ノイマンは状態を渡されて分布そのものを自分で選ぶ。 第二に、ユニタリ発展では一切変わらない。四次元の無作為な密度行列と無作為なユニタリを四千組取って測ると、最大変化は 2.33 かける十のマイナス十五乗であった。閉じた量子系では厳密に保存される。ゆえにフォン・ノイマンのエントロピーは、それ自体では時間の矢になりえない——矢が要るのは非ユニタリな操作、すなわち部分トレース・測定・粗視化のほうである(論文77・78・88)。 第三に、これが本稿の芯である。全体のほうが部分より小さいことがある。一重項状態では、二つ合わせた系のエントロピーがゼロ(純粋状態)なのに、片方だけを見るとその値は 0.6931471806、すなわち ln 2 になる。古典では起こりえない:二かける二の同時分布を二十万個無作為に引いて、全体のエントロピーから部分の大きいほうを引いた値を測ると、最小でも 0.007226 で、一度も負にならなかった。古典では、全体を知ることは部分を知ることを含む。量子ではそうならない——二つを合わせた系については完全に知っていて、片方だけを見ると何も知らない、という状態が存在する。⚠️ ただしこれは「量子のほうが乱雑だ」という話ではない。全体のエントロピーがゼロとは、乱雑さが皆無だということである。情報が部分にではなく相関の側に置かれている、というだけである。 第四に、したがって条件付きエントロピーが負になる。一重項では、全体から部分を引いて マイナス 0.6931471806、すなわち マイナス ln 2 である。同じ二十万個の古典分布では最小でも 0.009555 だった。古典の条件付きエントロピーは下からゼロで抑えられ、量子のそれは マイナス ln 2 に届く——二つは符号の約束すら共有していない。同じ記号で書かれ、同じ名前で呼ばれているが、値域が違う。⚠️ なお「負のエントロピー」は言葉の綾ではなく操作的な意味を持つ(量子状態併合における「将来使える資源」として読める)が、本稿はその解釈には立ち入らない。書けるのは、値が負になるという事実と、その住所までである。 第五に、代わりに何が残るか。無作為な二量子ビット状態を二万個(階数も無作為に)取って調べると、劣加法性も荒木=リーブの三角不等式も破れがゼロだった。しかも一重項は三角不等式の境界にちょうど乗っている(部分どうしの差がゼロ、全体もゼロ)。古典の不等式は弱められたのではなく、別の不等式に置き換わっているのである。 点呼をしておく。粗視化のエントロピーは観測者の解像度に住み、動かすには粗視化を変える(論文77・78・88)。地平線の面積エントロピーは境界の面積と次元に住み、動かすには面積を変える(論文73・88)。フォン・ノイマンのエントロピーは密度行列のスペクトルに住み、動かすには非ユニタリな操作が要る。一語の下に三つの量があり、一つ目は観測者に、二つ目は境界に、そして三つ目は状態そのものに住んでいる。三つのうち、時間の経過で変わらないのは三つ目だけである。 ⚠️ 絡み合いエントロピーが場の理論で面積則を示すことは知られており、三つ目と二つ目のあいだに韻がある。だが本稿はそれを同根とは書かない——片方は部分系の選び方で決まり、他方は幾何が決める。論文88 が「結ぶのは上限だけ」と書いた線を、ここでも越えない。 重要(射程):確立された標準的事実の点呼(第2層)。示さないこと:新しい物理法則(一つもない)/論文88 の撤回(一つもない)/負のエントロピーの解釈(立ち入らない)。加えたもの:固有基底のシャノン量が S(ρ) に一致することを測ったこと、ユニタリ不変性を数で確かめたこと、古典側の不等式が破れないことを二十万個の標本で確認して量子側の マイナス ln 2 と対置したこと、三つのエントロピーに「動かすと動くもの」を書いたこと。残るもの:全体について完全に知っていながら、部分については何も知らない——そういう状態がある。古典の言葉では、この文は矛盾している。矛盾していないのは、情報が部分にではなく、部分と部分のあいだに置かれているからである。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。

DOI
10.5281/zenodo.22092568

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There are states about which the whole is completely known and the parts are not known at all. Paper 88 wrote that under the single word entropy there are two different quantities, the coarse-grained one and the horizon-area one. This paper adds a third address: the von Neumann entropy. NO NEW PHYSICAL LAW IS CLAIMED. The von Neumann entropy, subadditivity, the Araki-Lieb triangle inequality and the negativity of the conditional entropy are all standard. Nothing in Paper 88 is retracted: the separation of the two entropies stands, and a third is simply added. First, it is not Shannon's entropy quantised. Shannon's entropy requires a probability distribution, and a quantum state does not come with one, since a different distribution appears for each basis one measures in. Collecting the Shannon quantity over twenty thousand measurement bases for random single-qubit mixed states, the value measured in the eigenbasis equalled the von Neumann entropy to machine precision, with a difference of zero in all four cases, while random bases only approached it from above. The von Neumann entropy is therefore the smallest Shannon quantity obtainable by measurement: in any other basis, more disorder is reported than the state actually holds. The two start from different data - Shannon is handed a distribution and returns a number, while von Neumann is handed a state and chooses the distribution himself. Second, unitary evolution does not change it at all. Over four thousand random four-dimensional density matrices and random unitaries, the largest change was 2.33 times ten to the minus fifteen. It is exactly conserved for a closed system. So the von Neumann entropy cannot by itself be the arrow of time: the arrow requires something non-unitary, a partial trace, a measurement or a coarse-graining (Papers 77, 78 and 88). Third, and this is the core. The whole can carry less than a part. For the singlet state the entropy of the pair is zero, being a pure state, while either half alone has entropy 0.6931471806, that is the natural logarithm of two. Classically this cannot happen: drawing two hundred thousand random two-by-two joint distributions and measuring the entropy of the whole minus the larger of the two parts, the smallest value found was 0.007226 and it was never once negative. Classically, knowing the whole includes knowing the parts; quantum mechanically it does not, and there are states about which the pair is completely known and either half alone is not known at all. This is not a statement that quantum systems are more disordered: an entropy of zero for the pair says there is no disorder whatever. It says only that the information has been placed in the correlation rather than in the parts. Fourth, the conditional entropy therefore turns negative. For the singlet it is minus 0.6931471806, that is minus the logarithm of two, while over the same two hundred thousand classical draws the smallest value was 0.009555. The classical conditional entropy is bounded below by zero and the quantum one reaches minus the logarithm of two - the two do not even share a sign convention, being written with the same symbol and called by the same name while having different ranges. Negative entropy is not a figure of speech but has an operational meaning, readable as a resource for future use in quantum state merging; this paper does not enter that interpretation, since what can be written is that the value is negative, and its address. Fifth, what stands in its place. Over twenty thousand random two-qubit states of random rank, subadditivity and the Araki-Lieb triangle inequality were violated zero times, and the singlet lies exactly on the boundary of the triangle inequality, the difference between the parts being zero and the whole being zero as well. The classical inequality is not weakened but replaced. The census. The coarse-grained entropy lives in the observer's resolution and is moved by changing the coarse-graining (Papers 77, 78, 88). The horizon-area entropy lives in the boundary area and dimension and is moved by changing the area (Papers 73, 88). The von Neumann entropy lives in the spectrum of the density matrix and is moved only by a non-unitary operation. Three quantities under one word: the first lives in the observer, the second in the boundary, and the third in the state itself. Of the three, only the third is unchanged by the passage of time. Entanglement entropy is known to obey an area law in field theory, so there is a rhyme between the third and the second. This paper does not write that they share a root: one is fixed by the choice of subsystem, the other by geometry. The line Paper 88 drew, that the only relation is a bound, is not crossed here either. IMPORTANT (scope): a census of established standard material (Layer 2). What is not claimed: any new physical law (there is none) / any retraction of Paper 88 (there is none) / an interpretation of negative entropy (not entered). What is added: measuring that the eigenbasis Shannon quantity equals the von Neumann entropy, checking unitary invariance numerically, confirming on two hundred thousand samples that the classical inequality never fails and setting it against the quantum minus logarithm of two, and writing for each of the three entropies what must be moved for it to move. What remains: there are states about which the whole is completely known and the parts are not known at all. In classical language that sentence contradicts itself. It does not contradict itself because the information has been placed not in the parts but between them. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- 全体について完全に知っていながら、部分については何も知らない——そういう状態がある。 論文88 は「エントロピー」という一語のもとに二つの別物——粗視化のものと地平線の面積のもの——があると書いた。本稿は第三の住所を加える:フォン・ノイマンのエントロピーである。新しい物理法則は主張しない。フォン・ノイマンのエントロピー、劣加法性、荒木=リーブの三角不等式、条件付きエントロピーの負値は、いずれも標準的な内容である。⚠️ また論文88 の内容を撤回しない——二つのエントロピーの分離はそのままで、三つ目を足すだけである。 第一に、これはシャノンを「量子化」したものではない。シャノンのエントロピーには確率分布が要る。ところが量子状態には、分布が一つ付いてはいない——どの基底で測るかによって違う分布が出るからである。無作為な一量子ビットの混合状態について二万通りの基底で測ってみると、固有基底で測ったときのシャノン量がフォン・ノイマンのエントロピーに機械精度で一致し(四例とも差ゼロ)、無作為な基底は上からしか近づかなかった。すなわちフォン・ノイマンのエントロピーは「測ったときのシャノン量の最小値」である。どの基底で測っても、状態が実際に持っている以上の乱雑さが報告される。⭐ 出発点が違うのである——シャノンは分布を渡されて数を返し、フォン・ノイマンは状態を渡されて分布そのものを自分で選ぶ。 第二に、ユニタリ発展では一切変わらない。四次元の無作為な密度行列と無作為なユニタリを四千組取って測ると、最大変化は 2.33 かける十のマイナス十五乗であった。閉じた量子系では厳密に保存される。ゆえにフォン・ノイマンのエントロピーは、それ自体では時間の矢になりえない——矢が要るのは非ユニタリな操作、すなわち部分トレース・測定・粗視化のほうである(論文77・78・88)。 第三に、これが本稿の芯である。全体のほうが部分より小さいことがある。一重項状態では、二つ合わせた系のエントロピーがゼロ(純粋状態)なのに、片方だけを見るとその値は 0.6931471806、すなわち ln 2 になる。古典では起こりえない:二かける二の同時分布を二十万個無作為に引いて、全体のエントロピーから部分の大きいほうを引いた値を測ると、最小でも 0.007226 で、一度も負にならなかった。古典では、全体を知ることは部分を知ることを含む。量子ではそうならない——二つを合わせた系については完全に知っていて、片方だけを見ると何も知らない、という状態が存在する。⚠️ ただしこれは「量子のほうが乱雑だ」という話ではない。全体のエントロピーがゼロとは、乱雑さが皆無だということである。情報が部分にではなく相関の側に置かれている、というだけである。 第四に、したがって条件付きエントロピーが負になる。一重項では、全体から部分を引いて マイナス 0.6931471806、すなわち マイナス ln 2 である。同じ二十万個の古典分布では最小でも 0.009555 だった。古典の条件付きエントロピーは下からゼロで抑えられ、量子のそれは マイナス ln 2 に届く——二つは符号の約束すら共有していない。同じ記号で書かれ、同じ名前で呼ばれているが、値域が違う。⚠️ なお「負のエントロピー」は言葉の綾ではなく操作的な意味を持つ(量子状態併合における「将来使える資源」として読める)が、本稿はその解釈には立ち入らない。書けるのは、値が負になるという事実と、その住所までである。 第五に、代わりに何が残るか。無作為な二量子ビット状態を二万個(階数も無作為に)取って調べると、劣加法性も荒木=リーブの三角不等式も破れがゼロだった。しかも一重項は三角不等式の境界にちょうど乗っている(部分どうしの差がゼロ、全体もゼロ)。古典の不等式は弱められたのではなく、別の不等式に置き換わっているのである。 点呼をしておく。粗視化のエントロピーは観測者の解像度に住み、動かすには粗視化を変える(論文77・78・88)。地平線の面積エントロピーは境界の面積と次元に住み、動かすには面積を変える(論文73・88)。フォン・ノイマンのエントロピーは密度行列のスペクトルに住み、動かすには非ユニタリな操作が要る。一語の下に三つの量があり、一つ目は観測者に、二つ目は境界に、そして三つ目は状態そのものに住んでいる。三つのうち、時間の経過で変わらないのは三つ目だけである。 ⚠️ 絡み合いエントロピーが場の理論で面積則を示すことは知られており、三つ目と二つ目のあいだに韻がある。だが本稿はそれを同根とは書かない——片方は部分系の選び方で決まり、他方は幾何が決める。論文88 が「結ぶのは上限だけ」と書いた線を、ここでも越えない。 重要(射程):確立された標準的事実の点呼(第2層)。示さないこと:新しい物理法則(一つもない)/論文88 の撤回(一つもない)/負のエントロピーの解釈(立ち入らない)。加えたもの:固有基底のシャノン量が S(ρ) に一致することを測ったこと、ユニタリ不変性を数で確かめたこと、古典側の不等式が破れないことを二十万個の標本で確認して量子側の マイナス ln 2 と対置したこと、三つのエントロピーに「動かすと動くもの」を書いたこと。残るもの:全体について完全に知っていながら、部分については何も知らない——そういう状態がある。古典の言葉では、この文は矛盾している。矛盾していないのは、情報が部分にではなく、部分と部分のあいだに置かれているからである。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。
The concept of entropy rst arose in the study of thermodynamics and statistical me- chanics. In information theory the so-called Shannon entropy plays a signi cant role, which measures how much information we gain, on average, when we learn the value of a random variable. An alternative interpretation is that the entropy of the random variable quanti es the amount of uncertainty about the random variable before we learn its value. The concept was introduced by Claude E. Shannon in his 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". In the rst part of the present work we consider this fundamental measure of information and show some of its properties, such as non-negativity. The relative entropy or the Kullback-Leibler divergence is a very useful measure of the distance between two prob- ability distributions. After introducing its de nition and other notions (joint entropy, conditional entropy or mutual information) we can prove additional assertions about the Shannon entropy and present statements about the relations between the above men- tioned quantities. In quantum information theory, there is a quantity, namely von Neumann entropy, which corresponds to Shannon entropy and originates from it. In the section Von Neu- mann entropy we will introduce this quantity which is a continuous functional on the states, or on their mathematical representatives, the density operators, and it ful ls in- equalities such as subadditivity and strong subaddititvity. Just as with the Shannon entropy, it is extremely useful to de ne a quantum version of the relative entropy, which is one of the most important numerical quantities appearing in quantum information theory. It is used as a measure of distinguishability between quantum states. Among others its properties are jointly convexity, monotonicity which are speci cally convenient. Transformations on structures which preserve operations, quantities or relations among elements appear in many areas of mathematics. These are the so-called preservers which show up also in physics and even in chemistry where they are usually called symmetries. Therefore, the study of preserver transformations is an important area of research. The third section of this work is based on a paper, in which Lajos Molnár described the structure every bijective map on the space of all density operators on a given Hilbert space, which preserves the relative entropy. This result is closely related to Wigner's famous theorem on the form of quantum mechanical symmetry transformations. The above theorem of Molnár can be extended into two directions. On the one hand, the result holds also in the case when the transformation under consideration acts on the space of all positive semide nite operators not only on density operators (i.e., we omit the condition of unit trace). On the other hand the statement remains valid even if we omit the strongly restrictive condition that the transformation is bijective. The second result is a joint work with Prof. Lajos Molnár which appeared in the journal Linear Algebra and Its Applications.
The von Neumann entropy definition is -Tr ( d ln(d)) and is linked to: = Tr (d A) ((1)). Here d is a matrix as is A i.e Aij = . As a result d is often not diagonal. It seems further that the idea of entropy is linked to an operator (2). In other words, one might have certain probabilities linked to the operator P momentum and a different set to X. For a diagonal d, von Neumann’s form is the same as Shannon’s entropy, but uses the eigenvalues of d. For a pure quantum bound state Wn(x), it seems that one considers the two operators X and P and writes two entropies using Shannon’s entropy form: - Integral dx W(x)W(x) ln(WW) and -Integral dp a(p)a(p) ln(a(p)a(p)) where W(x)=wavefunction= Sum over p a(p)exp(ipx). Here P(x)=W(x)W(x) and P(p)=a(p)a(p). For example in (3), one may see calculations of these “distinct” entropies for a particle in a box with infinite potential walls. X and P are linked to measurables and for a quantum bound system one cannot know exactly x and p at the same time. One may write < KE > for a bound state in two ways: Integral dp a(p)a(p) pp/2m or Integral dx W(x) (-1/2m d/dx dW/dx). Using Shannon’s entropy approach one obtains two different entropy values Sx and Sp. With respect to von Neumann’s entropy, it is zero for a pure state. Although one cannot know x and p at the same time (in terms of a measurement) that does not prevent one from writing x and p together (i.e. both known) in exp(ipx) for the wavefunction of a free particle. In this note we suggest that one might consider product probabilities linked to more than one operator when considering entropy. For example, for <KE> one may write Integral dx P(x) Integral dp pp/2m P(p/x) thus acknowledging that both x and p play a role. In this case, P(x)P(p/x) is the probability to use in Shannon’s entropy as we have shown in (4). In (3) it is suggested that P(x)P(p/x) be used in order to incorporate both variables x and p. Using P(x)P(p) in Shannon’s entropy yields the same overall entropy when integrated over x and p i.e. S=Sx+Sp. One reason that the sum is useful is that it eliminates parameters such as L (box length) for a particle in a box with infinite walls (or k the spring constant for an oscillator. This allows for a quantum adiabatic transformation of a pure state to be isentropic. This follows from a Fourier transformation i.e. W(x)=Sum over p a(p)exp(ipx). The two variables p and x scale with L in the opposite manner i.e. x/L and pL (5). Thus we argue that entropy is not necessarily linked to only one operator, but rather for a pure state is linked to variables which appear in a Fourier transform. Usually a Fourier transform is simply a mathematical procedure, but not in the case of the quantum pure state wavefunction where the variable p is actually momentum. In this note we try to investigate how the quantum relationship between p and x emerges. We argue that it exists at the level of the classical action for a free particle (relativistic or nonrelativistic) A=-Et+px where dA/dx partial =p and dA/dt partial = -E. Thus p and x are variable pairs in classical dynamics and this carries over to classical statistical phase space linked to p and x. We argue that a quantum dynamical link between p and x is also present in A i.e. -id/dx exp(iA) = p exp(iA). In other words p and x are linked dynamically in quantum mechanics as well (for a free particle) with exp(-iEt+ipx) being part of this link. The Fourier series form is already present in this solution as one may create a momentum distribution i.e. Sum over p a(p)exp(ipx). This depends on p and x and both affect any operator based on p and x (or one of these). Thus we expect that probabilities linked to both p and x should appear in an expression of entropy for a quantum bound state.
In this chapter, we discuss several information measures that are important for quantifying the amount of information and correlations that are present in quantum systems. The first fundamental measure that we introduce is the von Neumann entropy (or simply quantum entropy ). It is the quantum generalization of the Shannon entropy, but it captures both classical and quantum uncertainty in a quantum state.1 The quantum entropy gives meaning to the notion of an information qubit . This notion is different from that of the physical qubit, which is the description of a quantum state of an electron or a photon. The information qubit is the fundamental quantum informational unit of measure, determining how much quantum information is present in a quantum system. The initial definitions here are analogous to the classical definitions of entropy, but we soon discover a radical departure from the intuitive classical notions from the previous chapter: the conditional quantum entropy can be negative for certain quantum states. In the classical world, this negativity simply does not occur, but it takes on a special meaning in quantum information theory. Pure quantum states that are entangled have stronger-than-classical correlations and are examples of states that have negative conditional entropy. The negative of the conditional quantum entropy is so important in quantum information theory that we even have a special name for it: the coherent information. We discover that the coherent information obeys a quantum data-processing inequality, placing it on a firm footing as a particular informational measure of quantum correlations. We then define several other quantum information measures, such as quantum mutual information, that bear similar definitions as in the classical world, but with Shannon entropies replaced with quantum entropies. This replacement may seem to make quantum entropy somewhat trivial on the surface, but a simple calculation reveals that a maximally entangled state on two qubits registers two bits of quantum mutual information (recall that the largest the mutual information can be in the classical world is one bit for the case of two maximally correlated bits). We then discuss several entropy inequalities that play an important role in quantum information processing: the monotonicity of quantum relative entropy, strong subadditivity, the quantum data-processing inequalities, and continuity of quantum entropy.
In this note we wish to examine three ideas. First we consider the case of W(x,t)=Sum over n an exp(-iEn t) Wn(x) ((1)) (for n=0,1 as an example) and note that the von Neuman entropy is 0 for such a state. This is pointed out in (1) together with the fact that there exists a von Neumann density operator exp(-H/T) (H=Hamiltonian operator) which yields the same result as Shannon’s entropy S using P(ei) if one uses dQ/T=Sum over n en dP(en)/T = dS. It seems then that there is a contradiction if the usual von Neumann entropy is 0 yet using a density operator = exp(-H/T) yields nonzero results. A resolution is suggested in (2) which deals with information theory and we see if it applies to ((1)). Secondly, we consider the Shannon’s form P(e)ln(P(e)) in more detail. In Part I and in previous notes we argued that ln ensures that S=S1+S2 if one has two systems. We also argued that dE= Sum over n en dP(en) = TdS if dWork =0. In this note, we argue that a stronger idea may be at work, namely the idea that Eave= Sum over n en P(en/T) and TS are essentially the same function except for a function of T. This approach may be used to show that ln is the function associated with entropy. Finally, we note as in Part I that when using either the von Neumann approach or Shannon’s entropy one must know which probabilities to use. For a system with energy levels en, P(n)=P(en/T) is an immediate candidate, but there may be more probabilities in the system related to a particle jumping from one ei to another. In such a case, if one uses these probabilities and then sums over some of them leaving only P(en/T), the form of entropy changes from that of Shannon’s form. (Originally, however, Shannon’s form is used before summing.)
For a quantum state undergoing unitary Schrodinger time evolution, the von Neumann entropy is constant. Yet the second law of thermodynamics, and our experience, show that entropy increases with time. Ingarden introduced the quantum operator entropy, which is the Shannon entropy of the probability distribution for the eigenvalues of a Hermitian operator. These entropies characterize the missing information about a particular observable inherent in the quantum state itself. The von Neumann entropy is the quantum operator entropy for the case when the operator is the density matrix. We examine pure state unitary evolution in a simple model system comprised of a set of highly-interconnected topologically disordered states and a time-independent Hamiltonian. An initially confined state is subject to free expansion into available states. The time development is completely reversible with no loss of quantum information and no course graining is applied. The positional entropy increases in time in a way that is consistent with both the classical statistical mechanical entropy and the second law.
In this chapter, we discuss several information measures that are important for quantifying the amount of information and correlations that are present in quantum systems. The first fundamental measure that we introduce is the von Neumman entropy. It is the quantum analog of the Shannon entropy, but it captures both classical and quantum uncertainty in a quantum state. The von Neumann entropy gives meaning to a notion of the information qubit . This notion is different from that of the physical qubit, which is the description of a quantum state in an electron or a photon. The information qubit is the fundamental quantum informational unit of measure, determining how much quantum information is in a quantum system. The beginning definitions here are analogous to the classical definitions of entropy, but we soon discover a radical departure from the intuitive classical notions from the previous chapter: the conditional quantum entropy can be negative for certain quantum states. In the classical world, this negativity simply does not occur, but it takes a special meaning in quantum information theory. Pure quantum states that are entangled have stronger-than-classical spatial correlations and are examples of states that have negative conditional entropy. The negative of the conditional quantum entropy is so important in quantum information theory that we even have a special name for it: the coherent information. We discover that the coherent information obeys a quantum data-processing inequality, placing it on a firm footing as a particular informational measure of quantum correlations.