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American Journal of Physics

An advanced undergraduate lab on laser noise detection analyzed with a quantum formalism

Haoran Liu, Zhou Fang, Qing Xu, Sujing Cao, Z W Wu, Yuan Wu, Jinxian Guo, L. Q. Chen

Published Jul 23, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Both quantum and classical noise are fundamental features of laser beams. This work introduces a quantum optics model to distinguish the two types of noise in a Michelson interferometer experiment for undergraduate education. By measuring photon flux noise in an interferometer, this lab enables undergraduates to observe quantum fluctuations in real data, distinguish quantum noise from classical noise, and develop hands-on skills in optical alignment and quantum measurement. By turning abstract quantum concepts into tangible experiences, it provides foundational training for emerging quantum technologies.

DOI
10.1119/5.0298492

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Both quantum and classical noise are fundamental features of laser beams. This work introduces a quantum optics model to distinguish the two types of noise in a Michelson interferometer experiment for undergraduate education. By measuring photon flux noise in an interferometer, this lab enables undergraduates to observe quantum fluctuations in real data, distinguish quantum noise from classical noise, and develop hands-on skills in optical alignment and quantum measurement. By turning abstract quantum concepts into tangible experiences, it provides foundational training for emerging quantum technologies.
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Optical interferometry is a well-known valuable tool for estimating an unknown parameter. However, the fluctuation of vacuum limits the sensitivity of optical interferometry. In order to obtain better sensitivity, the performance of the optical interferometry, such as signal to noise ratio and the minimum detectable value, need to be analyzed. However, in the undergraduate laboratory, almost of the experiments of the optical interferometry focus on interference principle but lack the performance analysis. In this paper, a Mach-Zehnder interferometer is employed for the evaluating the performance of optical interferometry in an undergraduate laboratory. The evaluation method is illustrated theoretically and experimentally. Based on experiment, we can extend classical optical experiment to quantum optics experiment, which appropriate for advanced undergraduate students with former experience in quantum optics.
Abstract This paper presents a new lab work concept promoting a series of quantum optics experiments: experimental milestones on the quantum behaviour of light designed for undergraduate lab work. The experiments may be carried out with considerably less effort while addressing the fundamentals of quantum theory: quantum states and their superposition, detected via the propagation phase of probability amplitudes; quantum nonlocality, detected via the change of the state due to localized detection; quantum entanglement , detected via the violation of Bell ’s inequality (CHSH criterion). The experimental setup is designed to meet the requirements of barrier-free multilevel use in undergraduate physics lab courses: students’ labs for secondary school students, undergraduate university labs for physics students (science and science education) and lab work assisted courses for the training of in-service physics teachers. This article is aimed to describe the basics of the setup and to show how the experiments may be implemented into lab courses to match different educational course levels. The experimental series could prove to be promising in terms of fruitful discussion of quantum theory fundamentals without semiclassical pitfalls.
Abstract This paper presents an educational concept for promoting quantum teaching and learning via an educational structured quantum optical experiment. The experiment is designed to demonstrate the striking differences between classical physics and quantum physics, for example quantum interference of unbreakable photons (the ability of probabilities to interfere due to a phase sensitive superposition of states) and quantum nonlocality (there is no way to locate photonic states without a fundamental loss of information about the characteristics and a complete change of the state). For this proposal, we developed an experimental setup straightforward enough to be used in advanced physics courses even in secondary school student labs. To explain, or in a more quantum-semantic way, to interpret the experimental results quantitatively, we provide an appropriately rigorous quantum optical theory. Our model combines Laplace statistics (to access the statistical behaviour of photon counting) and basic vector calculus to calculate probabilities from the phase sensitivity of probability amplitudes. This article aims to contribute to further discussion and empirical research into novel teaching strategies for a more deeply conceptual approach to quantum theory.