Cyber-physical systems (CPSs) based on the Internet of Things (IoT) form the backbone of modern smart infrastructures, including smart cities, healthcare monitoring, industrial automation, and intelligent transportation. However, connecting many resource-limited IoT devices makes them more vulnerable to cyber threats, particularly quantum attacks. This review comprehensively examines quantum-secure communication (QSC) frameworks for IoT-enabled CPS, focusing on Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms, and hybrid quantum–classical security models suitable for constrained devices. A PRISMA-guided search of the Scopus and Google Scholar database was conducted in January 2026 using three keyword groups related to hybrid security, artificial intelligence, and cyber-physical systems. Based on the evaluation, 6008 publications have been identified between 2001 and 2026. The first-round screening was performed for 4948 articles, after excluding duplicates. During the screening stage, 348 articles were selected for abstract scrutiny, 115 records were excluded due to no direct focus on CPS/IoT applications, 52 studies were excluded because these papers relied on traditional security models, 25 studies were excluded due to insufficient relevance to the review objectives, and 15 additional non-English studies were removed. Following the screening stage, 141 studies were selected for full-text eligibility. Out of those, 86 studies were removed due to a lack of specific evaluation metrics or not being published in a peer-reviewed venue. Furthermore, the publications are classified as QKD-based secure CPS and QSC for industrial IoT, AI-Assisted Secure Communication for CPS Networks, and hybrid PQC-QKD models for CPS/IoT devices. This article investigates recent advancements in secure data transmission, verified protocols, and AI-driven anomaly detection customized to CPS/IoT environments. In addition, operational hurdles, interaction with open innovations, real-time deployment, and secure edge-cloud integration are highlighted. By analyzing recent developments and identifying research gaps, this review provides a structured roadmap for designing secure, scalable, and quantum-safe IoT-based CPS frameworks capable of withstanding next-generation cyber threats. This systematic review was performed and reported according to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines.
Cyber-physical systems (CPSs) based on the Internet of Things (IoT) form the backbone of modern smart infrastructures, including smart cities, healthcare monitoring, industrial automation, and intelligent transportation. However, connecting many resource-limited IoT devices makes them more vulnerable to cyber threats, particularly quantum attacks. This review comprehensively examines quantum-secure communication (QSC) frameworks for IoT-enabled CPS, focusing on Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms, and hybrid quantum–classical security models suitable for constrained devices. A PRISMA-guided search of the Scopus and Google Scholar database was conducted in January 2026 using three keyword groups related to hybrid security, artificial intelligence, and cyber-physical systems. Based on the evaluation, 6008 publications have been identified between 2001 and 2026. The first-round screening was performed for 4948 articles, after excluding duplicates. During the screening stage, 348 articles were selected for abstract scrutiny, 115 records were excluded due to no direct focus on CPS/IoT applications, 52 studies were excluded because these papers relied on traditional security models, 25 studies were excluded due to insufficient relevance to the review objectives, and 15 additional non-English studies were removed. Following the screening stage, 141 studies were selected for full-text eligibility. Out of those, 86 studies were removed due to a lack of specific evaluation metrics or not being published in a peer-reviewed venue. Furthermore, the publications are classified as QKD-based secure CPS and QSC for industrial IoT, AI-Assisted Secure Communication for CPS Networks, and hybrid PQC-QKD models for CPS/IoT devices. This article investigates recent advancements in secure data transmission, verified protocols, and AI-driven anomaly detection customized to CPS/IoT environments. In addition, operational hurdles, interaction with open innovations, real-time deployment, and secure edge-cloud integration are highlighted. By analyzing recent developments and identifying research gaps, this review provides a structured roadmap for designing secure, scalable, and quantum-safe IoT-based CPS frameworks capable of withstanding next-generation cyber threats. This systematic review was performed and reported according to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines.
The rapid deployment of Internet of Things (IoT) devices across critical infrastructure’s sectors such as healthcare, transportation, and smart cities brings unprecedented security challenges; particularly as quantum computing threatens the classical cryptography. This systematic review analyzes IoT security in relation to post-quantum cryptography (PQC), highlighting vulnerabilities, evolving threat, and cryptographic countermeasures. Using the PRISMA 2020 protocol, our work employed a rigorous and reproducible search strategy, where the initial Boolean query, ((“IoT” OR “Internet of Things”) AND (“Cryptography” OR “Encryption Scheme”) AND “Quantum”), was developed and effectively customized for nine reputable databases to maximize the coverage. From an initial pool of 5,151 publications dated between 2020 and February 12, 2025, a content-based screening was conducted at the title, abstract, and full-text levels. This meticulous filtering resulted in a final corpus of 161 studies deemed relevant for in-depth analysis and synthesis. Then, we categorize and analyze PQC algorithms by vulnerabilities, suitability for resource-constrained IoT environments, performance evaluation, scalability, and quantum resilience. We also identify key limitations in implementations of current cryptographic schemes, including issues in key management and authentication; and outline major challenges such as resource constraints of IoT devices, environmental noise, quantum reversible computing, security vulnerabilities, quantum hardware constraints, and complexities in integration. To counter these threats, we propose a framework of PQC countermeasures and illustrated by a hypothetical case study of PQC adoption in a real-world IoT system. Finally, we propose future research directions in lightweight PQC, hybrid frameworks, improved key management and distribution, addressing quantum distance matters, countering quantum threats, and standardization for IoT environments.
Cyber-physical systems (CPS) are a technological marvel forming our modern world's backbone. These systems, which integrate physical processes, embedded systems, networking infrastructure, IoT, communication protocols, intelligent algorithms, and other application-specific resources, mark the convergence of computing with control and communication. They unify physical and cyber systems, paving the way for the next generation of critical systems such as autonomous transportation, smart grids, industrial IoT, and more. The next-generation CPS, characterized by their integration of physical processes, embedded systems, networking infrastructure, IoT, communication protocols, and intelligent algorithms, are set to revolutionize our world. These systems will incorporate AI and ML-based algorithms for decision-making and optimization. At the same time, edge and fog computing models will be integrated into the infrastructure to reduce data transmission latencies. New-generation networks like 5G and above will provide high-speed connectivity and seamless integration of devices and components. Digital twins will become a standard tool for simulating new scenarios, predictive maintenance, and more. As security threats for cyber-physical systems evolve alarmingly, robust protection becomes increasingly crucial. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a promising solution in this context. With their ability to provide secure cryptographic key exchanges in the operating environments of cyber-physical systems, QKD protocols are gaining traction as the industry shifts towards quantum computing.
Quantum computing poses a significant threat to classical asymmetric cryptography, which is essential for ensuring confidentiality, authentication, and key exchange in contemporary digital infrastructures. Although post-quantum cryptography (PQC) provides mechanisms that resist quantum attacks, its implementation in Internet of Things (IoT) systems is challenged by constrained resources, including limitations in computation, memory, energy, latency, and bandwidth, and the heterogeneity of devices. This paper offers a comprehensive narrative review of PQC approaches applicable to IoT, systematically organizing 30 peer-reviewed studies published between 2022 and 2026 across four layers: device, communication, distributed trust, and application. Additionally, the review examines two cross-cutting dimensions, privacy and side-channel resistance. The analysis indicates a significant prevalence of lattice-based schemes, hybrid strategies, and integrations with blockchain technology, zero-knowledge proofs, federated learning, homomorphic encryption, AI, and Zero Trust architectures. Notably, key gaps remain in side-channel evaluation, migration pathways, deployment costs, and real-world validation—issues that are particularly critical given the long lifecycles of IoT devices and the ongoing threat of “harvest now, decrypt later” attacks.
The Internet of Things (IoT) now underpins critical systems like healthcare monitors, smart home, smart grids, automotive V2V & V2X networks, and industrial controls but it still relies on classical cryptography, whose security assumptions are vulnerable to quantum computers. A large quantum computer could run Shor’s algorithm to break RSA/ECC and use Grover’s algorithm to accelerate brute-forcing of symmetric keys, undermining the confidentiality and authentication of data in these IoT applications. Researchers have proposed quantum cryptographic solutions. Quantum key distribution (QKD) and quantum random number generators (QRNGs) exploit quantum mechanics to detect eavesdropping and deliver provably secure key material. For example, chip-scale QRNGs can be embedded in IoT sensors to generate true random keys, boosting resistance to brute-force attacks. These quantum techniques provide information-theoretic secrecy, for instance, QKD-generated keys have been used to authenticate smart-grid SCADA. However, most IoT devices are resource-constrained, making direct deployment of conventional QKD hardware challenging. Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) complements quantum methods by providing algorithms such as lattice-based, hash-based that resist quantum attacks on existing hardware. Standardized PQC can be deployed via software updates on legacy IoT nodes, enabling scalable and quantum-safe security within current constraints. Researchers are exploring lightweight PQC for connected cars and e-health sensors. Hybrid approaches combining QKD/QRNG with PQC offer a layered defense. Since QKD protocols are regarded as ‘future-proof’ and PQC standards mature, their combined use will be essential for robust, quantum-safe IoT security. Miniaturizing quantum components such as integrated QKD/QRNG modules and optimizing lightweight PQC schemes for low-power IoT devices are future research directions to secure IoT networks.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is involved in almost every industry, paving the way for innovative applications, including smart cities, intelligent systems, smart homes, smart agriculture, healthcare, and more. However, due to their asset value, these applications are under continuous and evolving cyberattacks. Furthermore, the advent of quantum computing presents a severe threat to traditional cryptographic methods that typically secure IoT systems, potentially rendering existing security mechanisms ineffective against quantum-enabled attacks. To tackle quantum-enabled and traditional cyberattacks, post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has emerged as a promising solution for providing future-proof security for IoT devices and networks against the quantum computing threat. PQC algorithms can resist cyberattacks from classical and quantum computers, ensuring long-term security solutions. This article explores the integration of PQC into practical IoT systems. It highlights the vulnerabilities of classical cryptographic methods and the necessity of transitioning to quantum-resistant solutions. Moreover, the implementation of PQC on IoT systems is analyzed. By proactively exploring the opportunities and challenges associated with PQC, this research lays out future directions for implementing robust, scalable, and secure IoT systems.
The rapid expansion and inherent resource limitations of Internet of Things (IoT) devices necessitate robust, future-proof security solutions, particularly against sophisticated data integrity threats and the imminent risk of quantum computing attacks. This paper provides a systematic literature review (SLR) of the architectural integration of blockchain with quantum technologies (quantum key distribution (QKD) and post-quantum cryptography (PQC)) for a two-stage trust model in IoT communication. This review summarizes existing methods and answers three key research questions. The results show that permissioned blockchains are primarily used for trust management to ensure the non-repudiation and immutability of data. Notably, there is a clear dividing line in the application of quantum solutions: QKD is particularly suitable for securing high-capacity backbone communications (server gateways), whereas PQC (especially lattice-based algorithms such as Kyber and Dilithium) is the mainstream resource-efficient solution for IoT terminals. However, this integration also has significant drawbacks, such as high latency due to blockchain consensus mechanisms and increased memory and CPU requirements from PQC implementations. The main challenge is the lack of standardized protocols for integrating QKD key management with smart contract functionality. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of current architectures, assesses their performance trade-offs, and outlines a clear research agenda aimed at developing standardized hybrid protocols for future trusted IoT systems and optimizing resource-efficient, quantum-resistant consensus mechanisms.