Abstract Modern national blockchain ecosystems and platforms must account for emerging quantum threats. Currently, however, there are no formalized methods for the quantitative assessment of blockchain stability under adversarial quantum attacks. The development of such a methodology enables a quantitative evaluation of quantum impacts on various ecosystem components, the establishment of resilience metrics, and the prediction of potential compromise timelines for cryptographic primitives, given the capabilities of contemporary quantum hardware. This article proposes and substantiates an original method for analyzing the quantum resilience of national blockchain ecosystems – including those based on Enterprise Ethereum Alliance, Waves Enterprise (Waves, Vostok), Hyperledger Fabric (Linux, IBM), Corda Enterprise, Masterchain, and Microsoft Azure Blockchain. The proposed framework includes: (i) a mathematical model of blockchain stability accounting for diverse attack vectors; (ii) a resilience assessment methodology based on threat, vulnerability, and risk analysis; (iii) algorithms for evaluating cryptographic strength using modified Shor’s and Grover’s quantum algorithms; and (iv) an optimized Approximate Quantum Fourier Transform (AQFT) scheme to assess the feasibility of compromising blockchain cryptographic primitives.
Abstract Modern national blockchain ecosystems and platforms must account for emerging quantum threats. Currently, however, there are no formalized methods for the quantitative assessment of blockchain stability under adversarial quantum attacks. The development of such a methodology enables a quantitative evaluation of quantum impacts on various ecosystem components, the establishment of resilience metrics, and the prediction of potential compromise timelines for cryptographic primitives, given the capabilities of contemporary quantum hardware. This article proposes and substantiates an original method for analyzing the quantum resilience of national blockchain ecosystems – including those based on Enterprise Ethereum Alliance, Waves Enterprise (Waves, Vostok), Hyperledger Fabric (Linux, IBM), Corda Enterprise, Masterchain, and Microsoft Azure Blockchain. The proposed framework includes: (i) a mathematical model of blockchain stability accounting for diverse attack vectors; (ii) a resilience assessment methodology based on threat, vulnerability, and risk analysis; (iii) algorithms for evaluating cryptographic strength using modified Shor’s and Grover’s quantum algorithms; and (iv) an optimized Approximate Quantum Fourier Transform (AQFT) scheme to assess the feasibility of compromising blockchain cryptographic primitives.
Blockchain ecosystems and platforms form a critical foundation for national digital economies worldwide. However, recent advancements in quantum computing, exemplified by breakthroughs from IBM and other leading developers, reveal that these systems may no longer guarantee stability and security against emerging quantum-enabled attacks. The increasing feasibility of such threats, commonly referred to as the “quantum threat,” poses unprecedented risks to the integrity, confidentiality, and reliability of blockchain infrastructures. In response, several technologically advanced countries have initiated efforts to anticipate and mitigate potential quantum cyberattacks. Ensuring the quantum resilience of blockchain systems necessitates novel approaches beyond conventional information security methods. Unlike traditional protections, these approaches aim to prevent systemic failures even under quantum-enabled adversarial conditions. The study identifies and systematizes the main directions for achieving quantum resilience, including post-quantum cryptographic primitives, modified quantum algorithms, and hybrid quantum–classical security models. The review highlights how progress in superconducting, ionic, photonic, and neutral-atom quantum platforms reshapes the threat landscape. A distinctive contribution of this work lies in its integrative perspective — linking cryptographic, architectural, and ecosystem-level aspects of blockchain sustainability under quantum threats. The proposed framework emphasizes combining post-quantum cryptography, quantum-safe protocols, and cross-domain coordination between quantum computing and cybersecurity research. Given the rapidly advancing nature of quantum technologies, the findings presented here not only reflect the current state of the field but also outline strategic directions for developing adaptive, quantum-resilient blockchain systems, including dynamic algorithmic frameworks, formal verification of quantum-resistant smart contracts, and simulation of blockchain protocols against quantum adversary models.
The advent of Quantum Computing (QC) poses significant threats to the cryptographic foundations of Blockchain (BC) systems, as quantum algorithms like Shor’s and Grover’s undermine the security of public-key cryptography and hash functions. This research conducts a comprehensive risk assessment of quantum vulnerabilities across critical BC components, including consensus mechanisms, smart contracts, and digital wallets. Leveraging the STRIDE threat modeling framework, we analyze threat vectors specific to QC, identifying key areas most susceptible to quantum-enabled attacks, such as private key compromise, consensus disruptions, and smart contract integrity risks. Our contributions provide actionable mitigation strategies, including a detailed security blueprint for quantum resilience, encompassing the integration of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and the adoption of quantum-resistant hash functions. We offer implementation best practices, focusing on key management, secure coding, and network security to strengthen BC components against quantum threats. To mitigate the risk of QC during transition from classical to quantum-resistant BCs, we present two hybrid BC architectures. As part of a comprehensive quantum resilience strategy, these architectures facilitate a secure and scalable migration by integrating platform-specific adaptations that balance security, adaptability, and operational efficiency. Our analysis extends to major BC platforms, including Bitcoin, Ethereum, Ripple, Litecoin, and Zcash, providing platform-specific vulnerability assessments and highlighting unique weaknesses in the quantum era. By identifying vulnerabilities, developing proactive defense strategies, and adopting a structured hybrid migration approach, this research equips BC stakeholders with a robust framework to achieve long-term quantum resilience. Finally, we explore challenges and research directions for integrating emerging technologies, including quantum machine learning, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Web3, with BC systems, and discuss new threats that may arise from this convergence in the QC era.
Quantum computing poses a significant threat to blockchain systems that rely on elliptic curve cryptography and other classical security mechanisms. Algorithms such as Shor’s and Grover’s can weaken or completely break the cryptographic foundations of current blockchain networks, exposing them to risks including private key recovery, transaction forgery, consensus manipulation, and harvest-now-decrypt-later attacks. This paper presents a systems framework for designing quantum-resilient blockchains by integrating post-quantum cryptographic standards, threat modeling, architectural redesign, governance mechanisms, and migration planning. The study evaluates major post-quantum cryptographic primitives, assesses their suitability for blockchain environments, and proposes a layered architecture grounded in crypto-agility, defense-in-depth, and forward secrecy. A structured migration strategy is also introduced to support the transition of existing blockchain networks toward post-quantum security while maintaining operational continuity and stakeholder trust. The framework provides practical guidance for researchers, developers, and policymakers preparing blockchain ecosystems for the post-quantum era.
Abstract Purpose of work is the development of a new method for estimating the quantum resilience of modern blockchain platforms based on the effective solution of cryptanalysis problems for asymmetric encryption schemes (RSA, El-Gamal) and digital signature (DSA, ECDSA or RSA-PSS), based on computationally difficult problems of factorization and discrete logarithm. Research method is the use of quantum algorithms providing exponential gain (eg Shor’s algorithm) and quadratic gain (eg Grover’s algorithm). Due to the fact that the class of problems solved by quantum algorithms in polynomial time cannot yet be significantly expanded, more attention is paid to cryptanalysis based on the quantum Shor algorithm and other polynomial algorithms. Results of the study include a classification of well-known algorithms and software packages for cryptanalysis of asymmetric encryption schemes (RSA, El-Gamal) and digital signature (DSA, ECDSA or RSA-PSS) based on computationally difficult problems of factorization and discrete logarithm has been built. A promising method for solving problems of cryptanalysis of asymmetric encryption schemes (RSA, ElGamal) and digital signature (DSA, ECDSA or RSA-PSS) of known blockchain platforms in polynomial time in a quantum computing model is proposed. Algorithms for solving problems of quantum cryptanalysis of two-key cryptography schemes of known blockchain platforms in polynomial time are developed, taking into account the security of the discrete algorithm (DLP) and the discrete elliptic curve algorithm (ECDLP). A structural and functional diagram of the software package for quantum cryptanalysis of modern blockchain platforms “Kvant-K”, adapted to work in a hybrid computing environment of the IBM Q quantum computer (20 and 100 qubits) and the IBM BladeCenter (2022) supercomputer, has been designed. A methodology has been developed for using the “Kvant-K” software package to assess the quantum stability of blockchain platforms: InnoChain (Innopolis University), Waves Enterprise (Waves, Vostok), Hyperledger Fabric (Linux, IBM), Corda Enterprise, Bitfury Exonum, Blockchain Industrial Alliance, Exonum (Bitfury CIS), NodesPlus (b41), Masterchain (Sberbank), Microsoft Azure Blockchain, Enterprise Ethereum Alliance, etc. Practical relevance: The developed new solution for computationally difficult problems of factorization and discrete logarithm, given over finite commutative (and non-commutative) associative algebras, in a quantum model of computing in polynomial time. It is essential that the obtained scientific results formed the basis for the development of the corresponding software and hardware complex “Kvant-K”, which was tested in a hybrid computing environment (quantum computer IBM Q (20 and 100 qubits) and/or 5th generation supercomputer: IBM BladeCenter (2022), RCS based on FPGA Virtex UltraScale (2020), RFNC-VNIIEF (2022) and SKIF P-0.5 (2021). An appropriate method for estimating the quantum stability of these blockchain platforms based on the author’s models, methods and algorithms of quantum cryptanalysis has been developed and tested. Keywords: blockchain and distributed ledger technologies (DLT), SMART contracts, blockchain security threat model, quantum security threat, cryptographic attacks, quantum cryptanalysis, quantum and post-quantum cryptography, quantum algorithms Shor, Grover and Simon algorithms, quantum Fourier transform, factorization and discrete logarithm problem, post-quantum cryptography, quantum resilience of blockchain platforms.
Quantum computers pose a significant threat to blockchain technology’s security, which heavily relies on public-key cryptography and hash functions. The cryptographic algorithms used in blockchains, based on large odd prime numbers and discrete logarithms, can be easily compromised by quantum computing algorithms like Shor’s algorithm and its future qubit variations. This survey paper comprehensively examines the impact of quantum computers on blockchain security and explores potential mitigation strategies. The survey focuses on the quantum security of blockchain’s fundamental building blocks, including digital signatures, hash functions, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. We analyze the vulnerabilities introduced by quantum computers and discuss potential countermeasures and enhancements to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of blockchain systems. Furthermore, we investigate the quantum attack surface of blockchains, identifying potential avenues for exploiting quantum computing to strengthen existing attacks. We emphasize the need for developing quantum-resistant defenses and explore solutions for mitigating the threat of quantum computers to blockchains, including the adoption of quantum and post-quantum blockchain architectures. The paper also discusses the limitations of current efforts, such as the computational overhead of post-quantum algorithms and the practical challenges in real-world deployment, illustrated through case studies of Bitcoin and Ethereum. Future research directions include developing scalable quantum-resistant blockchain protocols, optimizing cryptographic implementations for embedded devices, and establishing standardized security frameworks to mitigate emerging quantum attacks.
Quantum computing is progressing at a fast rate and there is a real threat that classical cryptographic methods can be compromised and therefore impact the security of blockchain networks. All of the ways used to secure blockchain like Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA), Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and Secure Hash Algorithm 256-bit (SHA256) are the characteristic of the traditional cryptographic techniques vulnerable to attack by quantum algorithms: Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms: can efficiently break asymmetric encryption and speed up brute force attacks. Because of this vulnerability, there exists a need to develop an advance quantum resilient blockchain framework to protect the decentralized ledgers from the future threats of the quantum. This research proposes Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG) as a formidable architectural integration, to fortify security of blockchain. Classical encryption is replaced with PQC, QKD with secure key exchange by detecting eavesdropping, and QRNG with improving cryptographic randomness to remove the predictable key vulnerability. Only with a small loss of transaction efficiency, we increase transaction encryption accuracy, key exchange security, and resistance to quantum attacks. In this quantum enhanced blockchain design, the idea is to preserve the decentralization, transparency and security and at the same time overcome the future quantum threat. By going through rigorous analysis and comparative evaluation, we demonstrate that the approach saves blockchain networks from the emerging quantum risks to make sure that the decentralized finance, smart contracts and cross chain transactions.