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Modern information security

POST-QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY: CURRENT STATE AND PROSPECTS

Г. С. Єлісєєва

Published Mar 30, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Post-quantum cryptography is one of the key areas of development of modern means of information protection inconnection with the active progress of quantum technologies. Classical cryptographic algorithms, such as RSA and ECC,become vulnerable due to the Shor algorithm, which threatens the long-term security of information systems. The articleprovides an in-depth review of the current state of post-quantum cryptographic algorithms based on the results of the NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology (NIST) selection, and also analyzes the approaches proposed in recent scientificpublications. The characteristics of the Kyber, Dilithium, Falcon, and SPHINCS+ algorithms are considered in detail - theirsecurity parameters, performance, cryptographic strength, requirements for hardware resources, and possibilities of applicationin practical systems. Special attention is paid to the issues of integrating post-quantum algorithms into existing cryptographicprotocols, in particular, into public-key systems, public-key infrastructure, and secure communication channels. The keyproblems of implementing post-quantum cryptography in information infrastructures are considered, including: increased keysizes and cryptographic parameters, computational delays, compatibility with existing software and hardware solutions, and theneed to revise key management policies. The prospects for implementing post-quantum solutions in Ukraine are separatelyanalyzed, and practical recommendations are offered for a phased migration to such algorithms for state and corporate systems,taking into account the requirements for long-term data confidentiality and protection of critical information infrastructure.Keywords: post-quantum cryptography, quantum attacks, NIST PQC, Kyber, Dilithium, Falcon, SPHINCS+,cryptoresistance. References1. NIST. (n.d.). Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Project. https://csrc.nist.gov/projects/postquantum-cryptography.2. NIST. (2024). NIST releases first 3 finalized post-quantum encryption standards. https://www.nist.gov/newsevents.3. Dam, D. T., Mavroeidis, V., & Vishi, K. (2023). A survey of post-quantum cryptography: Start of a newquantum era. Cryptography, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography7030040.4. Kokare, Priyanka & Vora, Deepali & Patil, Shruti & Kotecha, Ketan & Khairnar, Vaishali & Choudhury,Tanupriya & Kulkarni, Ambarish. (2024). Post Quantum Cryptography: A survey of Past and Future.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/382398375_Post_Quantum_Cryptography_A_survey_of_Past_and_Future.5. Chen, L., Jordan, S., Liu, Y.-K., Moody, D., Peralta, R., Perlner, R., Smith-Tone, D. (2016). Report on PostQuantum Cryptography. NIST IR 8105. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8105.6. Bos, J. W., et al. (2017). CRYSTALS-Kyber: A CCA-Secure Module-Lattice-Based KEM. https://pqcrystals.org/kyber/data/kyber-specification-round3.pdf.7. Ducas, L., et al. (2018). CRYSTALS-Dilithium: Digital Signatures from Module Lattices. https://pqcrystals.org/dilithium/data/dilithium-specification-round3.pdf.8. Pöppelmann, T., Oder, T., & Güneysu, T. (2015). High-Speed Ideal Lattice-Based Cryptography on 8-bit AVRMicrocontrollers. IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive, Report 2015/382. https://eprint.iacr.org/2015/382.pdf.9. Cloudflare. (2023). Post-Quantum Cryptography Support in TLS and Web Infrastructure.https://blog.cloudflare.com/tag/post-quantum-cryptography/.10. ETSI. (2020). Quantum-Safe Cryptography – An Overview. https://www.etsi.org/technologies/quantum-safecryptography.11. NCSC UK. (2020). Preparing for Quantum-Safe Cryptography. https://www.ncsc.gov.uk/whitepaper/preparing-for-quantum-safe-cryptography.12. Keyfactor & Ponemon Institute. (2023). State of Machine Identity Management Report. Keyfactor, Inc.https://www.keyfactor.com.13. Shor, P. (1994). Algorithms for quantum computation: Discrete logarithms and factoring. Proceedings of the35th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science.14. Bernstein, D., & Lange, T. (2017). Post-Quantum Cryptography. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-88702-7.15. Grover, L. (1996). A fast quantum mechanical algorithm for database search. STOC '96.https://doi.org/10.1145/237814.237866.16. Mosca, M. (2018). Cybersecurity in an era with quantum computers: Will we be ready? IEEE Security &Privacy, 16(5), 38–41. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2018.3761723.17. Prest, T. (2020). Efficient implementation issues in Falcon. https://falcon-sign.info.18. SPHINCS+ Team. (n.d.). SPHINCS+ Specification. https://sphincs.org/data/sphincs+-specification.pdf.

DOI
10.31673/2409-7292.2026.010544

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As quantum computing advances, current cryptographic protocols are increasingly vulnerable to quantum attacks, particularly those based on Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) like RSA or Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). This paper presents a comprehensive review of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) as a solution to protect digital systems in the quantum era. We provide an in-depth analysis of various quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms, including lattice-based, code-based, hash-based, isogeny-based, and multivariate approaches. The review highlights the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) PQC standardization process, highlighting key algorithms, such as CRYSTALS–Kyber, CRYSTALS–Dilithium, Falcon, and SPHINCS+, and discusses the strengths, vulnerabilities, and implementation challenges of the leading algorithms. In addition, we explore transition strategies for organizations, emphasizing hybrid cryptography to ensure backward compatibility during migration. This study offers key insights into the future of cryptographic standards and the critical steps necessary to prepare for the transition from classical to quantum-resistant systems.
Abstract. In the digital age, cryptography is widely used in various important systems such as financial, military and government ones, medical records etc. The life of modern people is closely connected with the cryptography. We send messages via instant messengers without even considering in which way the security of communications and data is ensured. We buy things both online and transfer money with confidence in transaction security. The level of digitization of our society is constantly increasing, and the digital data needs a reliable protection, which makes cryptography a current topic. Cryptographic systems ensure our security and the basic properties of information, such as privacy, integrity, availability. However, with the beginning of the development of quantum computers, the field of cryptography has developed in a new direction. Quantum cryptography is a science that studies the methods of communication systems protection. It is based on the idea that patterns of quantum physics (physical properties described by the laws of quantum optics, quantum electrodynamics, or quantum field theory) are inviolable. The current state of development and usage of powerful quantum computers, as well as their mathematical and software, is strictly confidential and securely protected. Only clear-cut information about quantum computers and their usage in cryptography is provided. NIST has announced an open competition to select quantum-resistant public-key cryptographic algorithms. After the third round, CRYSTALS-KYBER, CRYSTALS Dilithium, FALCON, and SPHINCS+ were proposed to be standardized. NIST has already recommended moving from the sizes of keys and algorithms that provide 80 security bits to the sizes of keys and algorithms that provide 112 or 128 security bits in order to protect against classic attacks. Post-quantum cryptography, which with its complexities still requires a more detailed study, challenge science once more. However, it is unknown when the changes will occur and when the quantum era will begin, as well as what consequences they will have. It is only possible to predict how many advantages will have quantum calculations compared to usual, and how different the new quantum models will be from classic ones.
Abstract It is viewed as revolutionary technology, offering incredible potential in terms of computing power within different scientific and industrial sectors. Quantum computers provide remarkable computing power; however, they also present significant security risks to existing public-key cryptography systems used to secure digital communication, online banking systems, government, medical applications, cloud computing systems, and IoT systems. Security of commonly used encryption schemes like RSA, DH, and ECC depends on mathematical problems that are impossible for classical computers to solve but can be easily resolved with the help of powerful enough quantum computers by using Shor’s algorithm. Furthermore, Grover’s algorithm makes exhaustive search attacks much faster, thus effectively lowering the security level of symmetric encryption schemes since it provides the speed-up for brute-force attacks. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) turned out to be an effective and scalable method to protect digital data from attacks using quantum computing. In contrast to quantum cryptography, which requires a special quantum communication channel, PQC uses classical cryptographic algorithms that cannot be broken down by either classical or quantum computer due to certain mathematical problems. This research paper offers an extensive exploration of post-quantum cryptography through the analysis of the development of quantum computing, weaknesses of current cryptographic techniques, and mathematics behind quantum-resistant algorithms. Moreover, this paper explores the major classes of PQC techniques such as lattice-based, code-based, hash-based, multivariate, and isogeny-based cryptography and provides details about their security and application. Moreover, the report gives an overview of the NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Project and analyzes recent standardizations of quantum-proof algorithms to be utilized in future digital infrastructures. Keywords: Post-Quantum Encryption, Quantum Security, Quantum-Proof Public-Key Cryptography, Lattice-Based Security Protocols, ML-KEM Key Encapsulation Mechanism, ML-DSA Digital Signature Algorithm, NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography, Contemporary Cybersecurity, Secure Communications, Cryptographic Algorithms.
The threats are existential to the traditional cryptosystems of public keys, including RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic curve cryptography (ECC), due to the rapid progress in quantum computing. Such algorithms as the Shor and Grover algorithms prove that as soon as large scale quantum computers are achieved, these classical cryptographic protocols will not provide any privacy and integrity to online communication. This has created an emergency to find post-quantum cryptography (PQC), or quantum-safe cryptography, which will resist attacks by both classical and quantum attackers. The paper is a review of the latest research and development in post-quantum cryptographic algorithms and their implementation in current security systems. We organize quantum-safe methods into significant organizations such as lattice-based, hash-based, multivariate polynomial-based and code-based encrypted communications. Each type has been evaluated critically based on computational efficiency, key sizes, speed of encryption/decryption and security proofs. The survey also examines the current standardization activities happening in the world and especially the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) PQC competition, which lists candidate algorithms that have advanced to standard adoption. Besides this, the paper addresses hybrid cryptographic designs that use both classical and post-quantum bases in ensuring a seamless migration in the transition phase. Internet security protocols like TLS, VPNs and blockchain consensus as applications of PQC are examined in detail. Lastly, we pinpoint open research issues, which include creating lightweight PQC to support resource-constrained IoT devices, balancing performance and strong security assurances, and interoperability between the new PQC algorithms and existing infrastructures. Through detailed survey we inform the future of researchers, practitioners, and policymakers on the preparation of the post-quantum era of secure digital communications.
The impressively fast development of quantum computing is a serious threat to classical public-key cryptography, and algorithms such as Shor's and Grover's will render RSA and elliptic curve systems essentially useless as soon as a cryptanalytically relevant quantum computer becomes available. Although it is still some way off before such machines are available, the harvest-now-encrypt-later threat highlights the need for proactive defense. In response, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published the first post-quantum cryptography standards in 2024, including ML-KEM (Kyber) for key establishment, ML-DSA (Dilithium) for digital signatures and SLH-DSA (SPHINCS+) as a stateless hash-based alternative. This paper is a summary of the evolving post-quantum landscape, starting with the standards and their underlying security and then moving on to migration policies such as CNSA 2.0 and CISA, NSA and NIST guidance. It also looks at integration patterns for important protocols such as TLS, IPsec, SSH, and code signing. A performance, interoperability and overhead evaluation methodology is presented with results showing that hybrid deployment and crypto-agile architectures make PQC adoption a viable option. The paper concludes by providing a governance-oriented roadmap, where inventory, prioritization and pilot deployments are identified as near-term actions, with open questions remaining on performance optimization, implementation security and algorithm resilience over time.
The article analyzes the current state and prospects of the standardization of post-quantum algorithms for asymmetric cryptographic transformations at the national and international levels. The main reasons for the transition to post-quantum cryptography are discussed, particularly the potential threats posed by quantum computers to existing cryptographic algorithms (RSA, ECC, etc.). An overview of the NIST competition for selecting standards for post-quantum key encapsulation mechanisms (KEM) and electronic signatures is provided, with detailed descriptions of the algorithms chosen for standardization (CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, FALCON, SPHINCS+, and HQC). Additionally, the article examines the role of ISO/IEC, ETSI, and IETF in developing international standards and recommendations. Special attention is given to Ukrainian national standards and initiatives, particularly the algorithms “Skelya” and “Vershyna,” their features, and their prospects for integration into international standards. The article emphasizes the importance and complexity of transitioning to quantum-resistant algorithms and outlines further steps for the successful implementation of post-quantum cryptography. Keywords: post-quantum cryptography, key encapsulation mechanisms, electronic signatures, standardization.