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Scientific Reports

Enhancing underwater sensor network security using QKD-enabled acoustic–optical hybrid communication

Srilekha Rajnarayanan, Tamilarasi Kathirvel Murugan, Logeswari Govindaraj, Smitha Gladius T S, Mohammed Aashik Fazuludeen

Published Apr 7, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) function as essential systems which support naval defence operations, environmental monitoring, offshore industrial work and sea-depth exploration activities. These networks experience major performance problems along with security-related issues. The communication distance of acoustic links extends far, but their data transfer speed remains slow, while they experience high latency and get disrupted by noise, multipath fading and interference. The dual nature of underwater communication systems creates a permanent conflict between achieving fast data transfer rates and extending network coverage. The current technical barriers in UWSNs become more challenging because standard encryption methods fail to protect against quantum computer attacks; which enable eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks. The Quantum-Assisted Keying-Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (QuAKey-UWSN) system uses Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) with adaptive acoustic-optical communication to create a new hybrid framework that addresses current network limitations. QKD is used to develop unbreakable encryption through physical laws, which detect bugging, overhearing, secret spying attacks, while the versatile fusion planner chooses between acoustic and optical channels for instant quantum key distribution and passing data exchange, depending on the acoustic channels for long range communication. The system uses MATLAB, NS-3 and Qiskit for simulation testing to demonstrate its operational success. The system produces secure keys at more than 3.5 kbps while maintaining 99% packet delivery ratio and 10.5 ms average latency. In this analysis QuAKey-UWSN has shown effective performance with strong robustness and wide-ranging capabilities, making it suitable for underwater operations that require dependable and secure communication systems.

DOI
10.1038/s41598-026-43842-9

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Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) function as essential systems which support naval defence operations, environmental monitoring, offshore industrial work and sea-depth exploration activities. These networks experience major performance problems along with security-related issues. The communication distance of acoustic links extends far, but their data transfer speed remains slow, while they experience high latency and get disrupted by noise, multipath fading and interference. The dual nature of underwater communication systems creates a permanent conflict between achieving fast data transfer rates and extending network coverage. The current technical barriers in UWSNs become more challenging because standard encryption methods fail to protect against quantum computer attacks; which enable eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks. The Quantum-Assisted Keying-Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (QuAKey-UWSN) system uses Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) with adaptive acoustic-optical communication to create a new hybrid framework that addresses current network limitations. QKD is used to develop unbreakable encryption through physical laws, which detect bugging, overhearing, secret spying attacks, while the versatile fusion planner chooses between acoustic and optical channels for instant quantum key distribution and passing data exchange, depending on the acoustic channels for long range communication. The system uses MATLAB, NS-3 and Qiskit for simulation testing to demonstrate its operational success. The system produces secure keys at more than 3.5 kbps while maintaining 99% packet delivery ratio and 10.5 ms average latency. In this analysis QuAKey-UWSN has shown effective performance with strong robustness and wide-ranging capabilities, making it suitable for underwater operations that require dependable and secure communication systems.
Security is a crucial aspect of underwater acoustic networks, that are often used in mission critical scenarios, such as coastal surveillance, rapid environmental assessment and mine countermeasure applications. The broadcast nature of the acoustic channel makes it vulnerable to a variety of attacks, such as spoofing, men-in-the-middle and jamming. Moreover, the lack of a standardized key distribution system makes data confidentiality challenging. In this paper we investigate the use of quantum key distribution (QKD) in underwater networks, in order to ensure confidentiality and integrity of the communication. While in the terrestrial domain the use of the one-time-pad protocol (requiring the key length to be equal to the message length) is limited by the low rate of the QKD rate compared to the bitrate of radio transmissions, in the underwater domain the limited bandwidth of the acoustic channel makes QKD a valid approach also for the one-time-pad protocol. The system is tested both with an emulator and a field test: results show that QKD can be a valuable system to secure underwater acoustic networks.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) face persistent challenges such as high attenuation, limited bandwidth, and environmental interference, which constrain their reliability and performance. This survey investigates the potential of quantum sensing technologies to overcome these limitations. We systematically review and analyze quantum-enhanced detection methods, entanglement-based communication protocols, and quantum magnetometry for underwater applications. Our study highlights how quantum techniques can conceptually improve signal detection, extend communication range, and enhance positioning accuracy. By comparing existing surveys, identifying key research gaps, and outlining a roadmap for practical implementation, this work provides a comprehensive perspective on advancing UWSNs through quantum technologies.
The research aims to develop an attack-free underwater optical communication channel at a distance of 50 meters. In this work, we have emphasized the importance of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) in Naval and many other applications. An in-detail study of the Benette Brassard QKD protocol proposed in 1984 [BB84] is done with its implementation. Then as the next step, we analyzed the drawbacks of BB84 and the necessity of QKD in Underwater Optical Wireless Sensor Networks [UO-WSN]. As a solution, to identified problems, we have proposed the Enhanced BB84 protocol (EBB84) with considerations of its usage in the UO-WSN. The results showed that the EBB84 algorithm is best suitable algorithm for the underwater environment.
The requirement of efficient security protocols to protect confidential information from ever evolving cyber threat has been highlighted by the fast implementation of wireless sensor network (WSN) in numerous important domains, including healthcare monitoring, environmental surveillance and military operations. Despite their feasibility, traditional cryptographic approaches are utilized behind the computing capability of recent attackers, including the possibility of future quantum computer attacks. In order to revolutionize WSN security, this study proposes utilizing quantum cryptography and other concepts from quantum computing into the existing framework. This research leads to develop a communication protocol that is extremely safe and against the cyber-attacks. This protocol utilizes the quantum key distribution (QKD) to protect data and granting its confidential. In addition to improving security, the new architectures begin with change that makes WSN more capable of dependable and secure operations in environment where data protection is essential. A complete framework for protecting WSNs from new cyber threats in the future while keeping data transmissions and efficient process with reliability is discussed in this study. This proposed method enhances the dependencies in WSN installation across various industries, which is important for applications that need strong security measures. Evaluation results shows that the proposed method outperformed all existing methods in terms of relevant metrics.
Underwater wireless communication is rapidly advancing, finding applications in diverse fields such as oceanography, defense, and commercial ventures. However, ensuring security in such transmissions is crucial due to the sensitive nature of the data involved and the challenges posed by the underwater environment. While classical encryption techniques provide some level of security, the emergence of quantum computing presents opportunities and challenges. Quantum key distribution (QKD) offers theoretically unbreakable encryption, making it an attractive solution. Extending QKD capabilities to underwater environments is a significant endeavor in this context. This paper explores the feasibility of applying an entanglement-based non-coherent QKD protocol inspired by the BBM92 protocol to underwater visible light communication (VLC)/QKD systems. We investigate the system’s design criteria and analyze its secret key performance, addressing challenges such as water absorption and turbulence-induced fading, focusing on addressing unauthorized receiver attacks. Through analysis and the considered case study, the feasibility and efficacy of this approach are explored, contributing to the advancement of secure underwater communications.
The growing importance of Underwater Networks (UNs) in mission-critical activities at sea enforces the need for secure Underwater Communications (UCs). Classical encryption techniques can be used to achieve secure data exchange in UNs. However, the advent of Quantum Computing will pose threats to classical cryptography, thus challenging also UCs. Currently, underwater crypto-systems mostly adopt symmetric ciphers, which are considered computationally quantum-robust, but pose the challenge of distributing the secret key upfront. A promising approach to overcome the key distribution problem is based on Post-Quantum Public-Key (PQPK) protocols. The security of PQPK protocols, however, only relies on the assumed computational complexity of some underlying mathematical problems. Moreover, the use of resource hungry PQPK algorithms in resource-constrained environments such as UNs can require non-trivial hardware/software optimization efforts. An alternative approach is underwater Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), which promises unconditional security built upon the physical principles of Quantum Mechanics. This tutorial provides a basic introduction to free-space Underwater QKD (UQKD). At first, the basic concepts of QKD are presented, based on a fully worked out QKD example. A thorough state-of-the-art analysis of UQKD is carried out. The paper subsequently provides a theoretical analysis of the QKD performance through free-space underwater channels, and its dependence on the key optical parameters of the system and seawater. Finally, open challenges, points of strength and perspectives of UQKD are identified and discussed.