Abstract Quantum Neural Networks (QNNs) offer a promising framework for integrating quantum computing principles into machine learning, yet their practical capabilities and limitations remain insufficiently studied. In this work, we systematically investigate the trainability and approximation properties of QNNs by benchmarking diverse circuit architectures and encoding strategies across synthetic and real-world datasets.We analyze several ansätze, including Hamming, binary, exponential, ternary, turnpike and Golomb, by evaluating their ability to learn synthetic data modeled as random finite Fourier series. To assess real-world applicability, we further evaluate QNNs on two time-series classification tasks: a Fischertechnik pneumatic leak detection dataset and the publicly available NASA bearing fault dataset.Our experiments show that while broader frequency spectra can theoretically enhance expressivity, practical trainability is strongly influenced by architectural factors such as qubit count and circuit depth. Notably, we find that QNNs perform best when the frequency spectrum is tailored to the target function’s complexity but remains as compact as possible. Moreover, architectures with identical frequency spectra can differ in trainability, with configurations using more qubits and fewer layers generally performing better, except in the single-layer case.These findings provide guidelines for selecting QNN ansätze and offer new insights into the interplay between expressivity and trainability in quantum machine learning.
Abstract Quantum Neural Networks (QNNs) offer a promising framework for integrating quantum computing principles into machine learning, yet their practical capabilities and limitations remain insufficiently studied. In this work, we systematically investigate the trainability and approximation properties of QNNs by benchmarking diverse circuit architectures and encoding strategies across synthetic and real-world datasets.We analyze several ansätze, including Hamming, binary, exponential, ternary, turnpike and Golomb, by evaluating their ability to learn synthetic data modeled as random finite Fourier series. To assess real-world applicability, we further evaluate QNNs on two time-series classification tasks: a Fischertechnik pneumatic leak detection dataset and the publicly available NASA bearing fault dataset.Our experiments show that while broader frequency spectra can theoretically enhance expressivity, practical trainability is strongly influenced by architectural factors such as qubit count and circuit depth. Notably, we find that QNNs perform best when the frequency spectrum is tailored to the target function’s complexity but remains as compact as possible. Moreover, architectures with identical frequency spectra can differ in trainability, with configurations using more qubits and fewer layers generally performing better, except in the single-layer case.These findings provide guidelines for selecting QNN ansätze and offer new insights into the interplay between expressivity and trainability in quantum machine learning.
Quantum Neural Networks (QNNs) offer a promising framework for integrating quantum computing principles into machine learning, yet their practical capabilities and limitations remain insufficiently studied. In this work, we systematically investigate the trainability and approximation properties of QNNs by benchmarking diverse circuit architectures and encoding strategies across synthetic and real-world datasets. We analyze several ansätze, including Hamming, binary, exponential, ternary, turnpike and Golomb, by evaluating their ability to learn synthetic data modeled as random finite Fourier series. To assess real-world applicability, we further evaluate QNNs on two time-series classification tasks: a Fischertechnik pneumatic leak detection dataset and the publicly available NASA bearing fault dataset. Our experiments show that while broader frequency spectra can theoretically enhance expressivity, practical trainability is strongly influenced by architectural factors such as qubit count and circuit depth. Notably, we find that QNNs perform best when the frequency spectrum is tailored to the target function's complexity but remains as compact as possible. Moreover, architectures with identical frequency spectra can differ in trainability, with configurations using more qubits and fewer layers generally performing better, except in the single-layer case. These findings provide guidelines for selecting QNN ansätze and offer new insights into the interplay between expressivity and trainability in quantum machine learning.
Quantum Neural Networks (QNNs) are a popular approach in Quantum Machine Learning. We analyze the frequency spectrum using Minkowski sums, which yields a compact algebraic description and permits explicit computation. Using this description, we prove several maximality results for broad classes of QNN architectures. Under some mild technical conditions we establish a bijection between classes of models with the same area that preserves the frequency spectrum, where R denotes the number of qubits and L the number of layers, which we consequently call spectral invariance under area-preserving transformations. With this we explain the symmetry in R and L in the results often observed in the literature and show that the maximal frequency spectrum depends only on the area and not on the individual values of R and L. Moreover, we collect and extend existing results and specify the maximum possible frequency spectrum of a QNN with an arbitrary number of layers as a function of the spectrum of its generators. In the case of arbitrary dimensional generators, where our two introduced notions of maximality differ, we extend existing Golomb ruler based results and introduce a second novel approach based on a variation of the turnpike problem, which we call the relaxed turnpike problem. We clarify comprehensively how the generators of a QNN must be chosen in order to obtain a maximal frequency spectrum for a given area A, thereby contributing to a deeper theoretical understanding. However, our numerical experiments show that trainability depends not only on, but also on the choice of (R, L), so that knowledge of the maximum frequency spectrum alone is not sufficient to ensure good trainability. While the maximality analysis limits the space of attainable frequency spectra and characterizing these spectra helps to understand the effect of the ansatz choice, it does not by itself provide sufficient criteria for ansatz selection, and further considerations are required.
Quantum Neural Networks (QNNs) are a popular approach in Quantum Machine Learning. We analyze the frequency spectrum using Minkowski sums, which yields a compact algebraic description and permits explicit computation. Using this description, we prove several maximality results for broad classes of QNN architectures. Under some mild technical conditions we establish a bijection between classes of models with the same area A:=R⋅L that preserves the frequency spectrum, where R denotes the number of qubits and L the number of layers, which we consequently call spectral invariance under area-preserving transformations. With this we explain the symmetry in R and L in the results often observed in the literature and show that the maximal frequency spectrum depends only on the area A=RL and not on the individual values of R and L. Moreover, we collect and extend existing results and specify the maximum possible frequency spectrum of a QNN with an arbitrary number of layers as a function of the spectrum of its generators. In the case of arbitrary dimensional generators, where our two introduced notions of maximality differ, we extend existing Golomb ruler based results and introduce a second novel approach based on a variation of the turnpike problem, which we call the relaxed turnpike problem. We clarify comprehensively how the generators of a QNN must be chosen in order to obtain a maximal frequency spectrum for a given area A, thereby contributing to a deeper theoretical understanding. However, our numerical experiments show that trainability depends not only on A=RL , but also on the choice of (R, L), so that knowledge of the maximum frequency spectrum alone is not sufficient to ensure good trainability. While the maximality analysis limits the space of attainable frequency spectra and characterizing these spectra helps to understand the effect of the ansatz choice, it does not by itself provide sufficient criteria for ansatz selection, and further considerations are required.
Quantum neural networks (QNNs) have emerged as a leading strategy to establish applications in machine learning, chemistry, and optimization. While the applications of QNN have been widely investigated, its theoretical foundation remains less understood. In this paper, we formulate a theoretical framework for the expressive ability of data re-uploading quantum neural networks that consist of interleaved encoding circuit blocks and trainable circuit blocks. First, we prove that single-qubit quantum neural networks can approximate any univariate function by mapping the model to a partial Fourier series. We in particular establish the exact correlations between the parameters of the trainable gates and the Fourier coefficients, resolving an open problem on the universal approximation property of QNN. Second, we discuss the limitations of single-qubit native QNNs on approximating multivariate functions by analyzing the frequency spectrum and the flexibility of Fourier coefficients. We further demonstrate the expressivity and limitations of single-qubit native QNNs via numerical experiments. We believe these results would improve our understanding of QNNs and provide a helpful guideline for designing powerful QNNs for machine learning tasks.
Quantum machine learning, and quantum neural networks (QNNs) in particular, are advancing fields with growing potential. Although systematic comparisons of QNN configurations have been explored primarily for classification tasks, comparatively little attention has been given to regression problems, particularly financial time series forecasting. This study presents a large-scale systematic comparative evaluation of QNN component configurations for financial time series forecasting, using the GBP/USD spot exchange rate as a case study. A grid search across encoding methods, ansatz designs, qubit counts, layer depths, and cost functions yields 1,368 distinct model configurations, each evaluated in terms of prediction accuracy, computational cost, and convergence behaviour. The results reveal unique insights into how the choice of methods influences performance, such as that gate selection and arrangement are more critical to model success than raw parameter count, and that entanglement is a system-level property of the full circuit rather than solely at the ansatz level. The best-performing QNN configuration achieves an R2 score of 0.985, outperforming a classical BiLSTM baseline. Additionally, the impact of real quantum hardware noise is assessed through execution on the IQM Emerald device, revealing that gate errors and decoherence represent a significant barrier to practical deployment, with gate selection and circuit depth identified as key determinants of hardware noise resilience. Overall, the findings provide practical architectural guidance for QNN design and establish a baseline characterisation of QNN noise sensitivity on near-term quantum devices.
Quantum neural networks (QNNs) based on parametrized quantum circuits are promising candidates for machine learning applications, yet many architectures lack clear connections to classical models, potentially limiting their ability to leverage established classical neural network techniques. We examine QNNs built from SWAP test circuits and discuss their equivalence to classical two-layer feedforward networks with quadratic activations under amplitude encoding. Evaluation on real-world and synthetic datasets shows that while this architecture learns many practical binary classification tasks, it has fundamental expressivity limitations: polynomial activation functions do not satisfy the universal approximation theorem, and we show analytically that the architecture cannot learn the parity check function beyond two dimensions, regardless of network size. To address this, we introduce generalized SWAP test circuits with multiple Fredkin gates sharing an ancilla, implementing product layers with polynomial activations of arbitrary even degree. This modification enables successful learning of parity check functions in arbitrary dimensions as well as binary n-spiral tasks, and we provide numerical evidence that the expressivity enhancement extends to alternative encoding schemes such as angle (Z) and ZZ feature maps. We validate the practical feasibility of our proposed architecture by implementing a classically pretrained instance on the IBM Torino quantum processor, achieving 84% classification accuracy on the three-dimensional parity check despite hardware noise. Our work establishes a framework for analyzing and enhancing QNN expressivity through correspondence with classical architectures, and demonstrates that SWAP test-based QNNs possess broad representational capacity relevant to both classical and potentially quantum learning tasks.