Our eyes are able to encode information from broad daylight down to only a handful of photons, but could we perceive a single photon? For decades the intrinsic Poisson variation of classical light sources has prevented definitive answers to this question. However, recent advances in quantum optics and non-classical light sources have reignited new interest in the question. Studies relying on sub-Poisson light sources have postulated that it is possible to produce sub-Poisson biological response distributions along the visual pathway, and even claimed that humans can perceive single photons. However, unambiguous experimental evidence for the prerequisite of sub-Poisson response statistics in the visual sciences has not been provided, that is, to which extent biological response statistics can differ between Poisson and sub-Poisson stimulation when taking retinal single-photon signal losses into account. In this thesis, we use a state-of-the-art sub-Poisson light source combined with the suction pipette technique to stimulate retinal rods in an axial geometry and measure their single-photon signal losses. We resolve the constraints set by the loss of single-photon signals to biological signal statistics from rods to human psychophysics. We show that due to the loss of single-photon signals it is impossible to distinguish the response distributions originating from Poisson or sub-Poisson light sources in the retina and at the level of perception on a biologically relevant timescale. Our results require fundamental re-evaluation of the previous results relying on sub-Poisson light stimulation in vision.
Our eyes are able to encode information from broad daylight down to only a handful of photons, but could we perceive a single photon? For decades the intrinsic Poisson variation of classical light sources has prevented definitive answers to this question. However, recent advances in quantum optics and non-classical light sources have reignited new interest in the question. Studies relying on sub-Poisson light sources have postulated that it is possible to produce sub-Poisson biological response distributions along the visual pathway, and even claimed that humans can perceive single photons. However, unambiguous experimental evidence for the prerequisite of sub-Poisson response statistics in the visual sciences has not been provided, that is, to which extent biological response statistics can differ between Poisson and sub-Poisson stimulation when taking retinal single-photon signal losses into account. In this thesis, we use a state-of-the-art sub-Poisson light source combined with the suction pipette technique to stimulate retinal rods in an axial geometry and measure their single-photon signal losses. We resolve the constraints set by the loss of single-photon signals to biological signal statistics from rods to human psychophysics. We show that due to the loss of single-photon signals it is impossible to distinguish the response distributions originating from Poisson or sub-Poisson light sources in the retina and at the level of perception on a biologically relevant timescale. Our results require fundamental re-evaluation of the previous results relying on sub-Poisson light stimulation in vision.
The human eye contains millions of rod photoreceptor cells, and each one is a single-photon detector. Whether people can actually see a single photon|which requires the rod signal to propagate through the rest of the noisy visual system and be perceived in the brain|has been the subject of research for nearly 100 years. Early experiments hinted that people could see just a few photons, but classical light sources are poor tools for answering these questions. Single-photon sources have opened up a new area of vision research, providing the best evidence yet that humans can indeed see single photons, and could even be used to test quantum effects through the visual system. We discuss our program to study the lower limits of human vision with a heralded single-photon source based on spontaneous parametric downconversion, and present two proposed experiments to explore quantum effects through the visual system: testing the perception of superposition states, and using a human observer as a detector in a Bell test.
The rod photoreceptors in the retina are known to be sensitive to single photons, but it has long been debated whether these single-photon signals propagate through the rest of the visual system and lead to perception. Recently, single-photon sources developed in the field of quantum optics have enabled direct tests of single-photon vision that were not possible with classical light sources. Using a heralded source based on spontaneous parametric downconversion to generate single photons which were sent to an observer at either an early or late time, Tinsley and Molodtsov et al. (2016) had observers judge when the photon was seen. Based on the above-chance accuracy in both a subset of high-confidence trials and in all post-selected trials, they claimed to show that humans can see single photons. However, we argue that this work suffers from three major issues: self-contradicting results, inappropriate statistical analyses, and a critical lack of statistical power. As a result, we cannot conclude that humans can see single photons based on the data of this study. We present a careful examination of the statistical analyses and the internal consistency of the data, which indicated that none of the key evidence holds.
We discuss our progress towards testing whether humans can see single photons, using a single-photon source based on spontaneous parametric downconversion and techniques from quantum optics. We review the existing evidence on single-photon vision, and show why no previous experiments with classical light sources (or otherwise) have truly been able to test it. We describe the heralded single-photon source we have built, which can be used for a definitive single-photon vision test, and discuss the statistical requirements and challenges of such a test. In pilot studies, we demonstrate that a two-alternative forced-choice design and our observer viewing station can measure the perception of very weak visual stimuli (including the weakest flashes of light ever directly tested, with just ~3 photons absorbed). We present two proposed experiments to test quantum effects through the visual system, which could contribute to our understanding of wavefunction collapse and the quantum-classical transition. We also discuss our work on other questions related to visual perception near threshold, including the length and completeness of temporal summation, which we have investigated in detail with a new experimental paradigm. We found that temporal summation continues for at least 650 ms when photons are delivered at a rate of about 30 in 100 ms, and that the completeness of summation may remain efficient over this window. Finally, we present some preliminary results on how 8- to 13-Hz alpha oscillations in the brain (which have complex effects on neural excitability and visual perception) might impact the detection of few-photon stimuli.
It was recently proposed to use the human visual system’s ability to perform efficient photon counting in order to devise a new biometric authentication methodology. The relevant “fingerprint” is represented by the optical losses light suffers along different paths from the cornea to the retina. The “fingerprint” is accessed by interrogating a subject on perceiving or not weak light flashes, containing few tens of photons, thus probing the subject’s visual system at the threshold of perception, at which regime optical losses play a significant role. The name “quantum biometrics” derives from the fact that the photon statistics of the illuminating light, as well as the quantum efficiency at the light detection level of rod cells, are central to the method. Here we elaborate further on this methodology, addressing several aspects like aging effects of the method’s “fingerprint,” as well as its inter-subject variability. We then review recent progress towards the experimental realization of the method. Finally, we summarize a recent proposal to use quantum light sources, in particular a single photon source, in order to enhance the performance of the authentication process. This further corroborates the “quantum” character of the methodology and alludes to the emerging field of quantum vision.
This paper describes a computational approach to the theoretical problems involved in the Young's single-photon double-slit experiment, focusing on a simulation of this experiment in the absence of measuring devices. Specifically, the human visual system is used in place of a photomultiplier or similar apparatus. Beginning with the assumption that the human eye perceives light in the presence of very few photons, we measure human eye performance as a sensor in a double-slit one-photon-at-a-time experimental setup. To interpret the results, we implement a simulation algorithm and compare its results with those of human subjects under identical experimental conditions. In order to evaluate the perceptive parameters exactly, which vary depending on the light conditions and on the subject's sensitivity, we first review the existing literature on the biophysics of the human eye in the presence of a dim light source, and then use the known values of the experimental variables to set the parameters of the computational simulation. The results of the simulation and their comparison with the experiment involving human subjects are reported and discussed. It is found that, while the computer simulation indicates that the human eye has the capacity to detect the corpuscular nature of photons under these conditions, this was not observed in practice. The possible reasons for the difference between theoretical prediction and experimental results are discussed.
It was recently proposed to use the human visual system’s ability to perform efficient photon counting in order to devise a new biometric methodology. The relevant biometric “fingerprint” is represented by the optical losses light suffers along several different paths from the cornea to the retina. The “fingerprint” is accessed by interrogating a subject on perceiving or not weak light flashes, containing few tens of photons, so that the subject’s visual system works at the threshold of perception, at which regime optical losses play a significant role. Here, we show that if, instead of weak laser light pulses, we use quantum light sources, in particular, single-photon sources, we obtain a quantum advantage, which translates into a reduction of the interrogation time required to achieve the desired performance. Besides the particular application on biometrics, our work further demonstrates that quantum light sources can provide deeper insights when studying human vision.