The exponential advancement of quantum computing poses an unprecedented threat to blockchain technology and emerging Sixth Generation (6G) networks, necessitating an urgent transition to post-quantum cryptographic solutions. This comprehensive review proposed post-quantum Cryptography (PQC) integration within Blockchain Enabled 6G (BE6G) architectures, highlighting vulnerabilities by Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms according to existing cryptographic standards, including Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA), Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA), and Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC). The paper addresses quantum computing fundamentals and blockchain security implications, exploring quantum-resistant cryptographic schemes including lattice-based, hash-based, code-based, and multivariate approaches. Through systematic examination of post-quantum threats, this review shows vulnerabilities affecting nearly 25% of existing cryptocurrency assets, presenting how quantum computers can break public-key systems in polynomial time. The study proposes solutions for implementing quantum-resistant blockchain architectures throughout 6G components, including Radio Access Network (RAN), edge computing, and core transport networks, while meeting ultra-low latency and scalability requirements. Key findings elaborate that hybrid cryptographic approaches combining classical and quantum-resistant algorithms provide promising directions. Lattice-based algorithms, particularly CRYSTALS-kyber and CRYSTALS-dilithium, are identified as primary deployment candidates. The review concludes that successful Quantum-Resistant Security deployment for BE6G Networks requires unprecedented coordination among telecommunication operators, blockchain developers, equipment manufacturers, and regulatory bodies. The ”harvest now, decrypt later” threat model creates sudden implementation, valuable for long-term digital infrastructure security.
The exponential advancement of quantum computing poses an unprecedented threat to blockchain technology and emerging Sixth Generation (6G) networks, necessitating an urgent transition to post-quantum cryptographic solutions. This comprehensive review proposed post-quantum Cryptography (PQC) integration within Blockchain Enabled 6G (BE6G) architectures, highlighting vulnerabilities by Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms according to existing cryptographic standards, including Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA), Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA), and Elliptic-Curve Cryptography (ECC). The paper addresses quantum computing fundamentals and blockchain security implications, exploring quantum-resistant cryptographic schemes including lattice-based, hash-based, code-based, and multivariate approaches. Through systematic examination of post-quantum threats, this review shows vulnerabilities affecting nearly 25% of existing cryptocurrency assets, presenting how quantum computers can break public-key systems in polynomial time. The study proposes solutions for implementing quantum-resistant blockchain architectures throughout 6G components, including Radio Access Network (RAN), edge computing, and core transport networks, while meeting ultra-low latency and scalability requirements. Key findings elaborate that hybrid cryptographic approaches combining classical and quantum-resistant algorithms provide promising directions. Lattice-based algorithms, particularly CRYSTALS-kyber and CRYSTALS-dilithium, are identified as primary deployment candidates. The review concludes that successful Quantum-Resistant Security deployment for BE6G Networks requires unprecedented coordination among telecommunication operators, blockchain developers, equipment manufacturers, and regulatory bodies. The ”harvest now, decrypt later” threat model creates sudden implementation, valuable for long-term digital infrastructure security.
This paper examines the growing threat that quantum computing presents to blockchain security. Core blockchain cryptographic frameworks, specifically the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm and the Secure Hash Algorithm 256, are vulnerable to quantum algorithms. Both the Shor algorithm and the Grover algorithm are capable of breaking the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm, enabling attackers to calculate private keys from public keys, while the Grover algorithm can also compromise hash-based systems that depend on brute-force methods, such as Proof-of-Work. On-chain analysis indicates that billions of dollars’ worth of crypto-assets are held in addresses susceptible to these quantum attacks. A proposed countermeasure is migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography, which incorporates quantum-resistant algorithms, such as CRYSTALS-Dilithium and Falcon. However, this migration introduces a trilemma among network security, decentralization, and performance. Post-Quantum Cryptography algorithms significantly increase transaction sizes and computational costs, which pose economic and technical challenges for large blockchain networks. The paper further discusses how the timeline for quantum advancements will be shaped by geopolitical competition, and how the catch-the-crop, decrypt-later strategy puts current data at risk from future quantum decryption. It emphasizes that active migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography is urgent, calling on stakeholders to prioritize system audits, transition to cryptographically flexible infrastructures, promote research into quantum-resistant solutions, and establish governance frameworks that enable prompt and decentralized upgrades.
As quantum computing advances, current cryptographic protocols are increasingly vulnerable to quantum attacks, particularly those based on Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) like RSA or Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). This paper presents a comprehensive review of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) as a solution to protect digital systems in the quantum era. We provide an in-depth analysis of various quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms, including lattice-based, code-based, hash-based, isogeny-based, and multivariate approaches. The review highlights the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) PQC standardization process, highlighting key algorithms, such as CRYSTALS–Kyber, CRYSTALS–Dilithium, Falcon, and SPHINCS+, and discusses the strengths, vulnerabilities, and implementation challenges of the leading algorithms. In addition, we explore transition strategies for organizations, emphasizing hybrid cryptography to ensure backward compatibility during migration. This study offers key insights into the future of cryptographic standards and the critical steps necessary to prepare for the transition from classical to quantum-resistant systems.
The fast-growing development of quantum computing is a great threat to classical cryptographic protocols underpinning the security of blockchain networks. The use of quantum attacks on algorithms, like RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) used to perform digital signatures and verify transactions, is susceptible to the quantum attack, especially the Shor algorithm. This is an emerging risk that casts doubt on long term reliability and trustworthiness of blockchain systems in their various applications in the fields of finance to the field of healthcare. To overcome this difficulty, new cryptographic primitives exist, developed by the field of post quantum cryptography (PQC), which resist quantum computational power, such as lattice based, hash based, multivariate and code based. This paper examines how quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms can be implemented into blockchain architecture, and how their security, scalability, and performance impacts can be assessed. Moreover, there are hybrid schemes that adapt classical and quantum safe schemes are taken as the transitional schemes to make backward compatibility. This study identifies practical avenues towards realising quantum resilient blockchain systems that are capable of supporting security in the post quantum era by analysing and comparing their possible implementations.
The advent of quantum computing has precipitated an estimated attack resistant cryptography system necessitating quantum attacks. The classical asymmetric algorithms, i.e., RSA and ECC are susceptible to Shor algorithm and a transition should be made to Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) anymore. The novelty of this work lies in providing a unified comparative framework that analyzes PQC families through security assumptions, concrete key/ciphertext sizes, and implementation complexity an aspect not addressed collectively in prior surveys. This survey gives a general picture of the status of the design process and general evaluation of PQC accounting its application within the paradigm of the diversified networks including the IoT and 5G/6G and in the cyber-physical environment. Furthermore, this review uniquely synthesizes practical hybrid‑deployment strategies, including protocol layering, coexistence models, and backward‑compatibility mechanisms, offering actionable guidance for real‑world migration. Additionally, the manuscript contributes a prioritized list of open problems across IoT, 5G/6G, blockchain, and cyber‑physical systems, highlighting domains facing the most urgent quantum‑resilience challenges. In this paper, the authors will evaluate the most popular PQC schemes, including schemes based on lattice, code, hash, and isogeny, depending on their performance, scalability, and interoperability (with reference to the recent research). It also examines the problems of integration as implemented with respect to the computational overhead, latency and adoption of hybrid with classical cryptography. This is expounded more to the standardization of PQC by NISTs and with a focus on such algorithms as CRYSTALS-Kyber and Dilithium. The findings suggest that, hybrid PQC protocols are able to control quantum resistance and actual performance in numerous infrastructures in computing systems.
Quantum computing is rapidly advancing and threatens the cryptographic systems that secure digital communications. Classical cryptosystems, such as RSA and ECC, rely on mathematical problems that are difficult for classical computers but can be solved easily by quantum algorithms, such as Shor’s. This challenge underscores the pressing need for Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) to safeguard data against both classical and quantum threats. This study provides a comprehensive review of PQC Approaches in securing data against quantum threats by analyzing reviewed journals, conference proceedings, book chapters, and websites. Several researchers reviewed relevant literature published between 2019 and 2026 using the ACM Digital Library, Wiley Online Library, Taylor & Francis, Springer, ScienceDirect, MDPI, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, and Google Scholar. The review evaluates lattice-based, code-based, Hash-based, multivariate, and isogeny-based schemes across security strength, performance, interoperability, and deployment feasibility in heterogeneous environments, including cloud platforms and Internet of Things devices. The findings indicate that lattice-based schemes, particularly CRYSTALS-Kyber and CRYSTALS-Dilithium, currently offer the most balanced trade-off between efficiency and quantum resistance, while Hash-based schemes such as SPHINCS+ prioritize conservative security at notable performance cost. Code-based approaches, including McEliece, demonstrate strong long-term security but remain constrained by large key sizes. The review highlights implementation, energy, migration, and governance barriers that must be addressed before adoption. The review concludes by emphasizing that transitioning to PQC requires a collaborative effort from academia, industry, and government. Future research should focus on integrating lightweight PQC in IoT, 5G/6G, and cloud environments, as well as developing hybrid models that combine classical and quantum-safe systems. Addressing these issues is crucial for establishing secure data protection in the quantum era.
The advance of quantum computing poses significant risks to traditional cryptographic systems, including RSA and ECC, due to algorithms such as Shor's, prompting an urgent need for robust post-quantum cryptography (PQC) solutions. This paper presents a systematic review of PQC algorithms, encompassing lattice-based, code-based, multivariate polynomial, hash-based, and supersingular isogeny-based cryptography. By evaluating recent publications and NIST standardization efforts, we assess these approaches in terms of quantum resistance, computational efficiency, scalability, and implementation challenges. Lattice-based schemes, notably CRYSTALS-Kyber, excel in quantum-secure encryption and performance, whereas codebased systems like McEliece are hindered by large key sizes. Hash-based signatures, such as SPHINCS+, and isogeny-based protocols, including SIDH, provide promising alternatives but require further optimization to reduce computational overhead. Our analysis highlights the potential of hybrid PQC methods and lightweight hardware implementations for securing emerging domains like IoT, blockchain, and financial systems. The review serves as a foundational resource for researchers and practitioners, advocating the adoption of quantum-resistant cryptography to preserve data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity in the quantum era.