Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

Quantum-resilient optical links using micro-LEDs generated quantum random numbers and physical unclonable functions

Tien Khee Ng, Heming Lin, Wenqing Niu, Tae‐Yong Park, Hang Lu, Zhican Zhou, Yating Wan, Boon S. Ooi

Published Mar 4, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Abstract Secure communication in Internet-of-Things (IoT) systems typically rely on separate hardware elements for key generation, device authentication, and data transmission, complicating scalable integration. Here we demonstrate that micro-LEDs can integrate all three capabilities, reducing energy and footprint overheads and avoiding exposure to additional attack surfaces. Notably, fabrication-induced structural variations can generate stable, device-unique near-field emission patterns that serve as optoelectronic physical unclonable functions (PUFs), while spontaneous-emission noise can provide a quantum-origin entropy source for quantum random number generators (QRNGs). Through min-entropy evaluation and post-processing, a single micro-LED delivers a stable QRNG throughput of 13.25 Gb/s. Using a deep-neural-network-assisted extractor, each device yields reproducible 256-bit keys, with intra- and inter-device Hamming distances separated by more than an order of magnitude. Integrated into a post-quantum cryptographic framework, the micro-LED functions as a self-contained secure transmitter, enabling authenticated and encrypted free-space optical wireless communication at 1.97 Gb/s. In principle, the security mechanisms are wavelength-independent and extendable across material platforms. Together, these results establish a quantum-resilient photonic node that consolidates transmission, identity, and randomness at the edge device level, providing a scalable hardware building block for secure, low-power connectivity in future IoT networks.

DOI
10.21203/rs.3.rs-8729181/v1

Related papers

A Novel Quantum-Based Authentication Method for IoT Devices using Quantum Physical Unclonable Functions

M. Premalatha, D. Narendar Singh

The Internet of Things (IoT) has ushered in significant advancements in networked technologies, yet it simultaneously raises concerns about the security and privacy of connected devices. Traditional authentication methods based on cryptographic protocols are increasingly vulnerable to attacks as the number of devices grows and attackers develop more sophisticated strategies. In this paper, we propose a novel quantum-based authentication method using Quantum Physical Unclonable Functions (QPUFs) to address the security challenges in IoT devices. Quantum PUFs exploit the inherent quantum properties of devices to generate unique, unclonable responses to challenges, providing a high level of security and resilience against attacks such as cloning, spoofing, and interception. We present the architecture of the proposed quantum authentication system, discuss the challenge-response protocol, and evaluate the system’s performance. Experimental results show that this approach offers strong security guarantees with minimal computational overhead. We Evaluate the Security, Scalability of our approach in simulated adverse IoT environment.

International Journal of Engineering and Manufacturing•Apr 8, 2026•0 citations

Scalable high-speed quantum random number generation using micro-LED entropy sources

Boon S. Ooi

Quantum random number generators (QRNGs) harness the inherent unpredictability of quantum processes to generate true randomness, a critical resource for cryptography, secure communications, and emerging quantum technologies. In this paper, I will present a compact and scalable QRNG architecture based on micro-light-emitting diodes (micro-LEDs), which serve as entropy sources by exploiting the intensity fluctuations of spontaneous emission. Our system, using a micro-LED, achieves a bandwidth-limited generation rate of 9.375 Gbit/s, while meeting the statistical randomness requirements specified by the NIST test suite. Our work lays the foundation for parallel QRNG integration on chip, enabling ultra-high-rate quantum random number generation in miniaturized, energy-efficient, and practical platforms. The implications of this advancement span from secure data and hardward to next-generation cryptographic systems.

Gallium Nitride Materials and Devices•Mar 5, 2026•0 citations

Micro-LED-based quantum random number generators

Heming Lin, Hang Lu, Matthew S. Wong +7 more

Quantum random number generators (QRNGs) leverage the inherent unpredictability of quantum mechanical phenomena to produce random numbers. However, the performance of many QRNGs is hindered by limitations such as low generation rates and the bulkiness of systems utilizing single-photon detectors (SPDs). In this study, we present a QRNG that addresses these challenges by using a micro-LED as an entropy source, utilizing the intensity fluctuations of spontaneous emissions. By applying post-processing techniques, our 5 × 5 µm 2 micro-LED-based system achieves a PD bandwidth-limited generation rate of 9.375 Gbit/s while successfully passing the required randomness tests outlined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Importantly, systematic testing across micro-LEDs of varying sizes demonstrates consistently high performance, highlighting the robustness of this approach. The compact, small footprint, scalable design, and surface emission characteristics of micro-LEDs pave the way for the development of parallel QRNG-integrated chips, which hold the potential to deliver ultra-high random number generation rates in practical, miniaturized platforms.

Optics Express•May 5, 2025•5 citations

High-Speed and Scalable Quantum Random Number Generation Using InGaN Micro-LEDs

Fu‐He Hsiao, Yun-Han Chang, Hung Chou +6 more

This paper presents a high-speed and scalable quantum random number generator (QRNG) based on InGaN micro-LED arrays. While traditional QRNG systems face limitations in data rate and integration complexity, our approach leverages the intrinsic quantum randomness of spontaneous emission from micro-LEDs to achieve superior performance. We successfully demonstrated a generation rate of 12.5 Gb/s with a single blue and green micro-LED, as well as with a 2×4 yellow micro-LED array. The randomness of the generated bit streams was validated by the NIST SP800-22 statistical test suite under the assumed trusted-device model, confirming their high quality and cryptographic suitability. The use of a multi-channel array further proves the scalability of our method, highlighting its potential for seamlessly boosting generation rates. In particular, this work demonstrates the potential of micro-LED-based QRNGs toward compact and high-performance implementations, paving the way for on-chip integration into future cryptographic and communication applications.

IEEE photonics journal•Feb 24, 2026•0 citations

A Quantum-Entropy-Based AES Framework for Energy-Efficient and Post-Quantum Secure IoT Wireless Sensor Networks

Mohammad Sirajuddin, Ravikumar Thallapalli, Dr.Burla Srinivas +1 more

The rapid development of Internet of Things (IoT) applications has led to the large-scale deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) that incessantly generate and transmit sensitive data over wireless networks.Although the current mostly used symmetric encryption algorithm for securing such networks is the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), the advent of quantum computing threatens the long-term security of AES, as well as the weaknesses inherent to the key generation, distribution, and lifecycle management.This research paper proposes a Quantum Enhanced AES framework for IoT based WSNs which integrates the use of Quantum Random Number Generator (QRNG) based high entropy key generation, key injection against side channel attacks and dynamic session-based rekeying.Compared with classical AES and two state-of-the-art security frameworks based on quantum computing, i.e., QKDassisted AES scheme and lightweight post-quantum security hybrid AES framework, the proposed scheme increases the entropy of the key by about 20% (from 0.82 to 0.99), and lowers the key exposure risk by more than 60% by using session-based rekeying.Simulation results indicate that the proposed method can achieve up to 8 to10% higher throughput and 22% lower end-to-end delay than post-quantum AES schemes, and also prolongs the network lifetime by almost 15% under realistic IoT-WSN workloads.The framework maintains and does not alter the AES standard compliance and does not make any changes to the AES core, thus it ensures practical applicability.These results show that the proposed approach offers a good quantum resilience with low performance and energy overhead, which is suitable for long-lived and security-critical IoT-WSN deployment.

International Journal of Computer Networks And Applications•Aug 30, 2026•0 citations

Quantum Cryptography for Securing the Internet of Things: A Comprehensive Literature Survey

Gaurav Makkar, Suman Pant

The Internet of Things (IoT) now underpins critical systems like healthcare monitors, smart home, smart grids, automotive V2V & V2X networks, and industrial controls but it still relies on classical cryptography, whose security assumptions are vulnerable to quantum computers. A large quantum computer could run Shor’s algorithm to break RSA/ECC and use Grover’s algorithm to accelerate brute-forcing of symmetric keys, undermining the confidentiality and authentication of data in these IoT applications. Researchers have proposed quantum cryptographic solutions. Quantum key distribution (QKD) and quantum random number generators (QRNGs) exploit quantum mechanics to detect eavesdropping and deliver provably secure key material. For example, chip-scale QRNGs can be embedded in IoT sensors to generate true random keys, boosting resistance to brute-force attacks. These quantum techniques provide information-theoretic secrecy, for instance, QKD-generated keys have been used to authenticate smart-grid SCADA. However, most IoT devices are resource-constrained, making direct deployment of conventional QKD hardware challenging. Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) complements quantum methods by providing algorithms such as lattice-based, hash-based that resist quantum attacks on existing hardware. Standardized PQC can be deployed via software updates on legacy IoT nodes, enabling scalable and quantum-safe security within current constraints. Researchers are exploring lightweight PQC for connected cars and e-health sensors. Hybrid approaches combining QKD/QRNG with PQC offer a layered defense. Since QKD protocols are regarded as ‘future-proof’ and PQC standards mature, their combined use will be essential for robust, quantum-safe IoT security. Miniaturizing quantum components such as integrated QKD/QRNG modules and optimizing lightweight PQC schemes for low-power IoT devices are future research directions to secure IoT networks.

International Conference on Internet of Things: Smart Innovation and Usages (IoT-SIU)•Nov 27, 2025•0 citations
Abstract Secure communication in Internet-of-Things (IoT) systems typically rely on separate hardware elements for key generation, device authentication, and data transmission, complicating scalable integration. Here we demonstrate that micro-LEDs can integrate all three capabilities, reducing energy and footprint overheads and avoiding exposure to additional attack surfaces. Notably, fabrication-induced structural variations can generate stable, device-unique near-field emission patterns that serve as optoelectronic physical unclonable functions (PUFs), while spontaneous-emission noise can provide a quantum-origin entropy source for quantum random number generators (QRNGs). Through min-entropy evaluation and post-processing, a single micro-LED delivers a stable QRNG throughput of 13.25 Gb/s. Using a deep-neural-network-assisted extractor, each device yields reproducible 256-bit keys, with intra- and inter-device Hamming distances separated by more than an order of magnitude. Integrated into a post-quantum cryptographic framework, the micro-LED functions as a self-contained secure transmitter, enabling authenticated and encrypted free-space optical wireless communication at 1.97 Gb/s. In principle, the security mechanisms are wavelength-independent and extendable across material platforms. Together, these results establish a quantum-resilient photonic node that consolidates transmission, identity, and randomness at the edge device level, providing a scalable hardware building block for secure, low-power connectivity in future IoT networks.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has ushered in significant advancements in networked technologies, yet it simultaneously raises concerns about the security and privacy of connected devices. Traditional authentication methods based on cryptographic protocols are increasingly vulnerable to attacks as the number of devices grows and attackers develop more sophisticated strategies. In this paper, we propose a novel quantum-based authentication method using Quantum Physical Unclonable Functions (QPUFs) to address the security challenges in IoT devices. Quantum PUFs exploit the inherent quantum properties of devices to generate unique, unclonable responses to challenges, providing a high level of security and resilience against attacks such as cloning, spoofing, and interception. We present the architecture of the proposed quantum authentication system, discuss the challenge-response protocol, and evaluate the system’s performance. Experimental results show that this approach offers strong security guarantees with minimal computational overhead. We Evaluate the Security, Scalability of our approach in simulated adverse IoT environment.
Quantum random number generators (QRNGs) harness the inherent unpredictability of quantum processes to generate true randomness, a critical resource for cryptography, secure communications, and emerging quantum technologies. In this paper, I will present a compact and scalable QRNG architecture based on micro-light-emitting diodes (micro-LEDs), which serve as entropy sources by exploiting the intensity fluctuations of spontaneous emission. Our system, using a micro-LED, achieves a bandwidth-limited generation rate of 9.375 Gbit/s, while meeting the statistical randomness requirements specified by the NIST test suite. Our work lays the foundation for parallel QRNG integration on chip, enabling ultra-high-rate quantum random number generation in miniaturized, energy-efficient, and practical platforms. The implications of this advancement span from secure data and hardward to next-generation cryptographic systems.
Quantum random number generators (QRNGs) leverage the inherent unpredictability of quantum mechanical phenomena to produce random numbers. However, the performance of many QRNGs is hindered by limitations such as low generation rates and the bulkiness of systems utilizing single-photon detectors (SPDs). In this study, we present a QRNG that addresses these challenges by using a micro-LED as an entropy source, utilizing the intensity fluctuations of spontaneous emissions. By applying post-processing techniques, our 5 × 5 µm 2 micro-LED-based system achieves a PD bandwidth-limited generation rate of 9.375 Gbit/s while successfully passing the required randomness tests outlined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Importantly, systematic testing across micro-LEDs of varying sizes demonstrates consistently high performance, highlighting the robustness of this approach. The compact, small footprint, scalable design, and surface emission characteristics of micro-LEDs pave the way for the development of parallel QRNG-integrated chips, which hold the potential to deliver ultra-high random number generation rates in practical, miniaturized platforms.
This paper presents a high-speed and scalable quantum random number generator (QRNG) based on InGaN micro-LED arrays. While traditional QRNG systems face limitations in data rate and integration complexity, our approach leverages the intrinsic quantum randomness of spontaneous emission from micro-LEDs to achieve superior performance. We successfully demonstrated a generation rate of 12.5 Gb/s with a single blue and green micro-LED, as well as with a 2×4 yellow micro-LED array. The randomness of the generated bit streams was validated by the NIST SP800-22 statistical test suite under the assumed trusted-device model, confirming their high quality and cryptographic suitability. The use of a multi-channel array further proves the scalability of our method, highlighting its potential for seamlessly boosting generation rates. In particular, this work demonstrates the potential of micro-LED-based QRNGs toward compact and high-performance implementations, paving the way for on-chip integration into future cryptographic and communication applications.
The rapid development of Internet of Things (IoT) applications has led to the large-scale deployment of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) that incessantly generate and transmit sensitive data over wireless networks.Although the current mostly used symmetric encryption algorithm for securing such networks is the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), the advent of quantum computing threatens the long-term security of AES, as well as the weaknesses inherent to the key generation, distribution, and lifecycle management.This research paper proposes a Quantum Enhanced AES framework for IoT based WSNs which integrates the use of Quantum Random Number Generator (QRNG) based high entropy key generation, key injection against side channel attacks and dynamic session-based rekeying.Compared with classical AES and two state-of-the-art security frameworks based on quantum computing, i.e., QKDassisted AES scheme and lightweight post-quantum security hybrid AES framework, the proposed scheme increases the entropy of the key by about 20% (from 0.82 to 0.99), and lowers the key exposure risk by more than 60% by using session-based rekeying.Simulation results indicate that the proposed method can achieve up to 8 to10% higher throughput and 22% lower end-to-end delay than post-quantum AES schemes, and also prolongs the network lifetime by almost 15% under realistic IoT-WSN workloads.The framework maintains and does not alter the AES standard compliance and does not make any changes to the AES core, thus it ensures practical applicability.These results show that the proposed approach offers a good quantum resilience with low performance and energy overhead, which is suitable for long-lived and security-critical IoT-WSN deployment.
The Internet of Things (IoT) now underpins critical systems like healthcare monitors, smart home, smart grids, automotive V2V & V2X networks, and industrial controls but it still relies on classical cryptography, whose security assumptions are vulnerable to quantum computers. A large quantum computer could run Shor’s algorithm to break RSA/ECC and use Grover’s algorithm to accelerate brute-forcing of symmetric keys, undermining the confidentiality and authentication of data in these IoT applications. Researchers have proposed quantum cryptographic solutions. Quantum key distribution (QKD) and quantum random number generators (QRNGs) exploit quantum mechanics to detect eavesdropping and deliver provably secure key material. For example, chip-scale QRNGs can be embedded in IoT sensors to generate true random keys, boosting resistance to brute-force attacks. These quantum techniques provide information-theoretic secrecy, for instance, QKD-generated keys have been used to authenticate smart-grid SCADA. However, most IoT devices are resource-constrained, making direct deployment of conventional QKD hardware challenging. Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) complements quantum methods by providing algorithms such as lattice-based, hash-based that resist quantum attacks on existing hardware. Standardized PQC can be deployed via software updates on legacy IoT nodes, enabling scalable and quantum-safe security within current constraints. Researchers are exploring lightweight PQC for connected cars and e-health sensors. Hybrid approaches combining QKD/QRNG with PQC offer a layered defense. Since QKD protocols are regarded as ‘future-proof’ and PQC standards mature, their combined use will be essential for robust, quantum-safe IoT security. Miniaturizing quantum components such as integrated QKD/QRNG modules and optimizing lightweight PQC schemes for low-power IoT devices are future research directions to secure IoT networks.