Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has emerged as a critical research area for securing communications in the quantum era. Among the selected algorithms, lattice-based schemes have gained particular attention due to their strong security foundations and practical efficiency.This paper presents a comparative analysis of latticebased PQC algorithms from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standardization process and the Korean PQC (KpqC) competition. The evaluation considers security levels, key and ciphertext/signature sizes, and implementation performance. The results highlight fundamental trade-offs between security, efficiency, compactness, and implementation complexity, providing insights into the strengths and limitations of current latticebased algorithms. These findings offer practical guidance for assessing their suitability for deployment in real-world post-quantum systems.
Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has emerged as a critical research area for securing communications in the quantum era. Among the selected algorithms, lattice-based schemes have gained particular attention due to their strong security foundations and practical efficiency.This paper presents a comparative analysis of latticebased PQC algorithms from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standardization process and the Korean PQC (KpqC) competition. The evaluation considers security levels, key and ciphertext/signature sizes, and implementation performance. The results highlight fundamental trade-offs between security, efficiency, compactness, and implementation complexity, providing insights into the strengths and limitations of current latticebased algorithms. These findings offer practical guidance for assessing their suitability for deployment in real-world post-quantum systems.
The transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) marks a pivotal shift in ensuring digital security, prompted by the potential of quantum computers to compromise classical systems such as Rivest-Shamir-Adlema and elliptic-curve cryptography. In response, NIST has standardized three foundational PQC algorithms: Module-lattice-based Key-encapsulation Mechanism for key establishment; Module-lattice-based Digital Signature, and Stateless Hash-based Digital Signature algorithms for digital signatures. Meanwhile, FALCON and Hamming Quasi-cyclic (HQC) schemes, both selected as finalists, are expected to join the standards soon. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of these NIST-selected PQC standards, with a dual focus on software implementations and hardware architecture designs. We analyze their mathematical frameworks, distinctive features, and optimization strategies related to performance, security, and resource efficiency. The software review examines algorithmic complexity, memory usage, and programming considerations, while the hardware review discusses FPGA and ASIC implementations, emphasizing modular arithmetic, polynomial operations, and resource efficiency challenges. A comparative analysis highlights the strengths and trade-offs of each algorithm, offering insights into their applicability across various platforms-from resource-constrained internet of things devices to high-performance computing environments. This study provides a foundational understanding of NIST’s selected PQC standards and their practical deployment in securing the post-quantum era.
The advent of quantum computing presents a significant threat to classical public-key cryptographic systems, including RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), thereby accelerating the development and standardization of post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This study evaluates the performance and implementation challenges of leading PQC algorithms across three major categories: lattice-based, hash-based, and multivariate cryptographic schemes. Utilizing empirical benchmark data from NIST candidate algorithms, the analysis focuses on key generation time, encryption latency, and memory consumption. Simulations and regression modeling reveal that lattice-based algorithms, particularly Kyber, demonstrate favorable trade-offs between computational efficiency and cryptographic strength. However, these schemes also present integration difficulties, especially in resource-constrained or legacy systems. Hash-based schemes like SPHINCS+ exhibit strong security guarantees but suffer from high latency and memory overhead, while multivariate algorithms such as Rainbow offer compact key sizes with moderate performance. The findings highlight the need for application-specific evaluation in selecting PQC solutions and provide actionable insights for guiding secure and efficient cryptographic transitions in the post-quantum era. Keywords: Post-Quantum Cryptography, Lattice-Based Cryptography, Hash-Based Cryptography, Multivariate Cryptography, Quantum Computing, Cryptographic Algorithms, Key Generation, Encryption Latency, Implementation Challenges, NIST PQC Standardization
The advent of quantum computing poses a significant threat to current cryptographic systems, particularly public-key algorithms such as RSA and ECC, which are vulnerable to quantum attacks like Shor's algorithm. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) aims to develop and standardize quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms to secure digital communications in the quantum era. This paper examines the current landscape of PQC, focusing on the evaluation and standardization efforts led by organizations such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). We analyze the major families of quantum-resistant algorithms, including lattice-based, hash-based, code-based, multivariate, and isogeny-based cryptography, discussing their security guarantees, performance trade-offs, and implementation challenges. Furthermore, we review NIST's PQC standardization process, highlighting selected finalists and alternate candidates, and explore the ongoing transition challenges in adopting these algorithms across industries. Finally, we discuss future directions for PQC research, including hybrid cryptographic systems and the need for continued cryptanalysis to ensure long-term security. This work provides a comprehensive overview of the progress and challenges in deploying quantum-resistant cryptography to safeguard against emerging quantum threats.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the emerging threat that large-scale quantum computing poses to classical public-key cryptographic systems, particularly RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), which form the backbone of contemporary digital security infrastructures. In response to this threat, the study aims to analyze post-quantum cryptography (PQC) as a viable long-term solution capable of resisting both classical and quantum adversaries. The paper further seeks to assess the urgency of PQC adoption in light of the “harvest now, decrypt later” threat model and to evaluate the practical readiness of quantum-safe cryptographic algorithms currently under consideration by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Materials and Methods: This study employs a qualitative and analytical research methodology grounded in an extensive review of authoritative sources, including NIST’s post-quantum cryptography standardization documents, recent academic literature, industry white papers, and policy reports from organizations such as RAND Corporation and Cloudflare. The analysis systematically surveys major families of post-quantum cryptographic algorithms namely lattice-based, code-based, and hash-based schemes and evaluates them based on security assumptions, computational efficiency, implementation complexity, and standardization maturity. Findings: The analysis indicates that Lattice-based cryptographic schemes demonstrate the highest maturity and practical readiness, evidenced by their selection in NIST’s PQC process. Code- and hash-based methods provide strong security but face key size and performance challenges. The lack of scalable quantum computers does not reduce urgency, as data harvesting persists. Artificial intelligence emerges as a key enabler for accelerating PQC adoption. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The paper recommends a proactive, phased post-quantum migration using hybrid cryptographic architectures. Organizations should conduct inventories, benchmarking, and pilot deployments aligned with NIST standards. AI-driven tools are advised to improve key management and reduce complexity. Continued interdisciplinary research and policy support are encouraged to ensure a secure, scalable transition to quantum-resistant security systems.
The security of classical public-key cryptosystems, which operate based on the computational intractability of integer factorization and discrete logarithm problems, is profoundly threatened by the rapid development of quantum computing. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) has been proposed to improve security against quantum attacks. Lattice-based cryptography is widely regarded as one of the most promising PQC method because of its proven security, efficient implementation, and functional versatility, and it has achieved significant progress in both algorithmic design and engineering implementation in recent years. This paper presents a systematic survey of the status of research on lattice-based cryptographic algorithms. First, the fundamental theory of lattices and their core hard problems are discussed. Next, the technical characteristics and performance of encryption and key encapsulation mechanisms, digital signature schemes, and key exchange protocols constructed based on lattice hard problems are reviewed and compared. Subsequently, the principles and optimization paths of two key technologies for lattice cryptography implementation, namely polynomial multiplication using the fast Number Theoretic Transform (NTT) and pre-image sampling algorithms, are discussed. Finally, considering the PQC standardization process of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), an outlook on future research directions for lattice-based cryptography is presented. The research directions include the development of more "succinct" fundamental hard problems, strengthening security proofs, improving algorithm efficiency, and countering novel attacks. This review serves as a reference for promoting the practical deployment and further research of lattice-based cryptography.
Recent developments in quantum computing have shed light on the shortcomings of the conventional public cryptosystem. Even while Shor's algorithm cannot yet be implemented on quantum computers, it indicates that asymmetric key encryption will not be practicable or secure in the near future. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has started looking for a post-quantum encryption algorithm that is resistant to the development of future quantum computers as a response to this security concern. The current focus is on standardizing asymmetric cryptography that should be impenetrable by a quantum computer. This has become increasingly important in recent years. Currently, the process of standardizing asymmetric cryptography is coming very close to being finished. This study evaluated the performance of two post-quantum cryptography (PQC) algorithms, both of which were selected as NIST fourth-round finalists. The research assessed the key generation, encapsulation, and decapsulation operations, providing insights into their efficiency and suitability for real-world applications. Further research and standardization efforts are required to enable secure and efficient post-quantum encryption. When selecting appropriate post-quantum encryption algorithms for specific applications, factors such as security levels, performance requirements, key sizes, and platform compatibility should be taken into account. This paper provides helpful insight for post-quantum cryptography researchers and practitioners, assisting in the decision-making process for selecting appropriate algorithms to protect confidential data in the age of quantum computing.