The nascent quantum computing brings unprecedented threats to the security roots of blockchain technology, potentially compromising cryptographic protocols securing decentralized systems. This review paper discusses the developing quantum threat scenario, focusing on the effect of quantum algorithms on traditional cryptographic systems. We critically examine current blockchain architectures, highlighting their vulnerabilities in a post-quantum future. The paper explores newer quantum-resistant cryptographic and modular architectural techniques to enhance blockchain resilience. This review supports comprehensive comprehension of cutting-edge strategies and research gaps by combining the literature addressing quantum threat modeling and post-quantum cryptography in decentralized systems.
The nascent quantum computing brings unprecedented threats to the security roots of blockchain technology, potentially compromising cryptographic protocols securing decentralized systems. This review paper discusses the developing quantum threat scenario, focusing on the effect of quantum algorithms on traditional cryptographic systems. We critically examine current blockchain architectures, highlighting their vulnerabilities in a post-quantum future. The paper explores newer quantum-resistant cryptographic and modular architectural techniques to enhance blockchain resilience. This review supports comprehensive comprehension of cutting-edge strategies and research gaps by combining the literature addressing quantum threat modeling and post-quantum cryptography in decentralized systems.
Quantum computers pose a significant threat to blockchain technology's security, which heavily relies on public-key cryptography and hash functions. The cryptographic algorithms used in blockchains, based on large odd prime numbers and discrete logarithms, can be easily compromised by quantum computing algorithms like Shor's algorithm and its future qubit variations. This survey paper comprehensively examines the impact of quantum computers on blockchain security and explores potential mitigation strategies. We begin by surveying the existing literature on blockchains and quantum computing, providing insights into the current state of research. We then present an overview of blockchain, highlighting its key components and functionalities. We delve into the preliminaries and key definitions of quantum computing, establishing a foundation for understanding the implications on blockchain security. The application of blockchains in cybersecurity is explored, considering their strengths and vulnerabilities in light of evolving quantum computing capabilities. The survey focuses on the quantum security of blockchain's fundamental building blocks, including digital signatures, hash functions, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. We analyze the vulnerabilities introduced by quantum computers and discuss potential countermeasures and enhancements to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of blockchain systems. Furthermore, we investigate the quantum attack surface of blockchains, identifying potential avenues for exploiting quantum computing to strengthen existing attacks. We emphasize the need for developing quantum-resistant defenses and explore solutions for mitigating the threat of quantum computers to blockchains, including the adoption of quantum and post-quantum blockchain architectures. By examining vulnerabilities and discussing mitigation strategies, we aim to guide researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in developing robust and secure blockchain systems capable of withstanding advancements in quantum computing technology.
Quantum computers pose a significant threat to blockchain technology’s security, which heavily relies on public-key cryptography and hash functions. The cryptographic algorithms used in blockchains, based on large odd prime numbers and discrete logarithms, can be easily compromised by quantum computing algorithms like Shor’s algorithm and its future qubit variations. This survey paper comprehensively examines the impact of quantum computers on blockchain security and explores potential mitigation strategies. The survey focuses on the quantum security of blockchain’s fundamental building blocks, including digital signatures, hash functions, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. We analyze the vulnerabilities introduced by quantum computers and discuss potential countermeasures and enhancements to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of blockchain systems. Furthermore, we investigate the quantum attack surface of blockchains, identifying potential avenues for exploiting quantum computing to strengthen existing attacks. We emphasize the need for developing quantum-resistant defenses and explore solutions for mitigating the threat of quantum computers to blockchains, including the adoption of quantum and post-quantum blockchain architectures. The paper also discusses the limitations of current efforts, such as the computational overhead of post-quantum algorithms and the practical challenges in real-world deployment, illustrated through case studies of Bitcoin and Ethereum. Future research directions include developing scalable quantum-resistant blockchain protocols, optimizing cryptographic implementations for embedded devices, and establishing standardized security frameworks to mitigate emerging quantum attacks.
Quantum computers pose a significant threat to blockchain technology’s security, which heavily relies on public-key cryptography and hash functions. The cryptographic algorithms used in blockchains, based on large odd prime numbers and discrete logarithms, can be easily compromised by quantum computing algorithms like Shor’s algorithm and its future qubit variations. This survey paper comprehensively examines the impact of quantum computers on blockchain security and explores potential mitigation strategies. We begin by surveying the existing literature on blockchains and quantum computing, providing insights into the current state of research. We then present an overview of blockchain, highlighting its key components and functionalities. We delve into the preliminaries and key definitions of quantum computing, establishing a foundation for understanding the implications on blockchain security. The application of blockchains in cybersecurity is explored, considering their strengths and vulnerabilities in light of evolving quantum computing capabilities. The survey focuses on the quantum security of blockchain’s fundamental building blocks, including digital signatures, hash functions, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. We analyze the vulnerabilities introduced by quantum computers and discuss potential countermeasures and enhancements to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of blockchain systems. Furthermore, we investigate the quantum attack surface of blockchains, identifying potential avenues for exploiting quantum computing to strengthen existing attacks. We emphasize the need for developing quantum-resistant defenses and explore solutions for mitigating the threat of quantum computers to blockchains, including the adoption of quantum and post-quantum blockchain architectures. By examining vulnerabilities and discussing mitigation strategies, we aim to guide researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in developing robust and secure blockchain systems capable of withstanding advancements in quantum computing technology.
The advent of quantum computing has generated apprehensions regarding the viability and security of conventional cryptographic algorithms. These algorithms safeguard the decentralized trust built into the blockchain, which relies on decentralized cryptographic consensus, instead of a central authority. Simultaneously, quantum computing has also unveiled unprecedented possibilities, opportunities and risks in the realm of technology. The significance of this is that numerous sub-routines employed within the blockchain, such as consensus protocols, data transmission, storage, and communication, heavily depend on conventional cryptographic algorithms like Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA). However, these algorithms are susceptible to quantum algorithms, which have the potential to effectively compromise them once quantum computers with sufficient computational capabilities are developed. Blockchain, although primarily recognized for its association with cryptocurrencies, is essentially a decentralized and trustless distributed ledger system. Its purpose is to enable decentralized communication, coordination, and the attainment of desired objectives through consensus mechanisms. A notable illustration of this concept is a blockchain transaction. The advent of quantum computing poses a significant threat to the security of blockchain systems, as the asymmetric algorithms employed within their many components will likely become obsolete. This jeopardizes the integrity of the blockchain system, which underpins a multi-billion dollar economy reliant on its inherent transparency and safety. This paper seeks to present an overview of the various threats faced by blockchain systems, examine the potential of quantum algorithms in offering cryptographic signatures for these systems, and provide a broad perspective on how to protect blockchain systems from quantum threats by utilizing quantum algorithms for cryptographic signatures. This study enhances the comprehension of existing vulnerabilities in blockchain systems, specifically focusing on the potential risks posed by quantum computing. Additionally, it sheds light on the ongoing efforts within the industry and current research endeavors aimed at addressing these weaknesses.
Amid breakthroughs in quantum computing, blockchain systems are experiencing a dual-track evolution characterized by threats from quantum attacks and empowerment through quantum technologies. Traditional blockchain architectures, which rely on public-private key cryptography and hash functions, face systemic risks to core functions such as transaction integrity verification and consensus security when exposed to quantum attacks. This paper systematically analyzes and compares two distinct technical approaches in the field of quantum-secure blockchain: post-quantum blockchain and quantum blockchain. The former enhances existing systems by integrating post-quantum cryptographic algorithms to resist quantum threats, aiming for a smooth transition from current architectures. The latter reconstructs distributed ledger technology based on quantum information properties such as entanglement, forming novel architectures involving quantum key distribution networks, quantum digital signatures, and quantum consensus algorithms. The feasibility and development potential of these approaches are examined in application scenarios such as industrial IoT. A comparative analysis is conducted on their technical constraints and implementation challenges from the perspectives of transaction efficiency, security model validation, and standardization maturity. This lays a foundation for future empirical research. Finally, potential development paths are discussed, and targeted research directions such as diversified migration and dynamic hybrid strategies are proposed to guide further studies.
Blockchain ecosystems and platforms form a critical foundation for national digital economies worldwide. However, recent advancements in quantum computing, exemplified by breakthroughs from IBM and other leading developers, reveal that these systems may no longer guarantee stability and security against emerging quantum-enabled attacks. The increasing feasibility of such threats, commonly referred to as the “quantum threat,” poses unprecedented risks to the integrity, confidentiality, and reliability of blockchain infrastructures. In response, several technologically advanced countries have initiated efforts to anticipate and mitigate potential quantum cyberattacks. Ensuring the quantum resilience of blockchain systems necessitates novel approaches beyond conventional information security methods. Unlike traditional protections, these approaches aim to prevent systemic failures even under quantum-enabled adversarial conditions. The study identifies and systematizes the main directions for achieving quantum resilience, including post-quantum cryptographic primitives, modified quantum algorithms, and hybrid quantum–classical security models. The review highlights how progress in superconducting, ionic, photonic, and neutral-atom quantum platforms reshapes the threat landscape. A distinctive contribution of this work lies in its integrative perspective — linking cryptographic, architectural, and ecosystem-level aspects of blockchain sustainability under quantum threats. The proposed framework emphasizes combining post-quantum cryptography, quantum-safe protocols, and cross-domain coordination between quantum computing and cybersecurity research. Given the rapidly advancing nature of quantum technologies, the findings presented here not only reflect the current state of the field but also outline strategic directions for developing adaptive, quantum-resilient blockchain systems, including dynamic algorithmic frameworks, formal verification of quantum-resistant smart contracts, and simulation of blockchain protocols against quantum adversary models.