With the advancement of quantum computing, traditional public-key cryptographic algorithms are increasingly at risk of being broken. This paper investigates the applicability of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) within modernized power grid infrastructures, commonly known as smart grids, that rely heavily on interconnected and sometimes internet-facing devices and distributed control systems. To help safeguard these critical infrastructures against quantum-enabled threats, we benchmark and evaluate the performance of NIST-standardized and finalist PQC Key Encapsulation Mechanisms (KEMs) in a realistic smart grid testbed. Our evaluation includes both benchmarking of core cryptographic operations, key generation, encapsulation, and decapsulation, as well as full TLS 1.3 handshake benchmarking across a real network of embedded devices and smart grid nodes. A key contribution of this work is the development of a smart grid testbed spanning multiple buildings with distributed energy resources (DERs) such as batteries and photovoltaic arrays, enabling an in-depth, system-level evaluation of post-quantum key exchange protocols in this context. We conclude by discussing the trade-offs between algorithmic efficiency and system constraints such as bandwidth, key rotation frequency, and device capability. Our findings offer actionable recommendations for the deployment of PQC algorithms tailored to the smart grid.
With the advancement of quantum computing, traditional public-key cryptographic algorithms are increasingly at risk of being broken. This paper investigates the applicability of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) within modernized power grid infrastructures, commonly known as smart grids, that rely heavily on interconnected and sometimes internet-facing devices and distributed control systems. To help safeguard these critical infrastructures against quantum-enabled threats, we benchmark and evaluate the performance of NIST-standardized and finalist PQC Key Encapsulation Mechanisms (KEMs) in a realistic smart grid testbed. Our evaluation includes both benchmarking of core cryptographic operations, key generation, encapsulation, and decapsulation, as well as full TLS 1.3 handshake benchmarking across a real network of embedded devices and smart grid nodes. A key contribution of this work is the development of a smart grid testbed spanning multiple buildings with distributed energy resources (DERs) such as batteries and photovoltaic arrays, enabling an in-depth, system-level evaluation of post-quantum key exchange protocols in this context. We conclude by discussing the trade-offs between algorithmic efficiency and system constraints such as bandwidth, key rotation frequency, and device capability. Our findings offer actionable recommendations for the deployment of PQC algorithms tailored to the smart grid.
The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses a significant threat to classical cryptographic mechanisms, necessitating the integration of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) into security frameworks for IoT-enabled power electronics. Smart grids and industrial automation systems rely on interconnected IoT devices for real-time control, monitoring, and data exchange, making them highly vulnerable to emerging quantum threats. This book chapter explores PQC frameworks tailored for securing power electronics in smart grid and industrial applications, addressing critical challenges such as computational overhead, communication latency, system compatibility, and scalability. The impact of PQC on real-time performance was evaluated, considering its influence on industrial IoT networks, cryptographic handshake efficiency, and data transmission reliability. Hybrid cryptographic solutions that combine classical and post-quantum approaches are assessed for their feasibility in power electronics IoT systems. Security resilience under adverse network conditions, including cyberattacks and network disruptions, was also analyzed to ensure seamless PQC integration without compromising operational stability. Through a comprehensive study of PQC implementation, performance optimization, and interoperability testing, this chapter provides insights into the future of secure and resilient power electronics systems in quantum-era cybersecurity landscapes.
The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses a critical threat to classical cryptographic schemes that secure modern distributed systems. As the deployment of distributed infrastructures—including blockchains, cloud-native applications, and edge networks—continues to grow, there is an urgent need to transition towards quantum-resistant security mechanisms. This paper provides a comprehensive examination of post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms and their applicability in distributed system architectures. We analyze the impact of quantum threats on key components of distributed systems such as communication protocols, identity management, data integrity, and consensus mechanisms. Furthermore, we evaluate current NIST-standardized PQC algorithms in terms of computational efficiency, scalability, and integration overhead within distributed environments. Challenges in key management, performance trade-offs, and implementation considerations are discussed. Finally, we propose best practices and future directions for secure, quantum-resilient distributed systems.
Abstract. As the threat of quantum computing to classical cryptography grows, the transition to post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) systems becomes essential—particularly for smart city infrastructures that rely heavily on secure, real-time sensor data. This paper investigates the performance of PQC algorithms currently in the final stages of standardization by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), focusing on their deployment in resource-constrained Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Leveraging real-world smart city sensor datasets, we develop a research prototype that simulates a realistic urban sensing scenario, using Raspberry Pi 3 and Pi Zero 2 W devices to cryptographically secure and transmit data to a central server. Experimental results demonstrate that the Kyber family is the most efficient for key encapsulation tasks, while Dilithium and Falcon offer strong performance for digital signatures. In contrast, PQC algorithms such as McEliece, HQC, and Rainbow exhibit substantial computational overhead—especially at higher security levels—limiting their suitability for time-sensitive or low-power environments. Our findings highlight the practical implications of PQC adoption in smart cities and provide evidence-based guidance for selecting efficient quantum-safe algorithms for real-world urban sensor networks.
The emergence of large-scale quantum computing presents an imminent threat to contemporary public-key cryptosystems, with quantum algorithms such as Shor’s algorithm capable of efficiently breaking RSA and elliptic curve cryptography (ECC). This vulnerability has catalyzed accelerated standardization efforts for post-quantum cryptography (PQC) by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and global security stakeholders. While theoretical security analysis of these quantum-resistant algorithms has advanced considerably, comprehensive real-world performance benchmarks spanning diverse computing environments—from high-performance cloud infrastructure to severely resource-constrained IoT devices—remain insufficient for informed deployment planning. This paper presents the most extensive cross-platform empirical evaluation to date of NIST-selected PQC algorithms, including CRYSTALS-Kyber and NTRU for key encapsulation mechanisms (KEMs), alongside BIKE as a code-based alternative, and CRYSTALS-Dilithium and Falcon for digital signatures. Our systematic benchmarking framework measures computational latency, memory utilization, key sizes, and protocol overhead across multiple security levels (NIST Levels 1, 3, and 5) in three distinct hardware environments and various network conditions. Results demonstrate that contemporary server architectures can implement these algorithms with negligible performance impact (<5% additional latency), making immediate adoption feasible for cloud services. In contrast, resource-constrained devices experience more significant overhead, with computational demands varying by up to 12× between algorithms at equivalent security levels, highlighting the importance of algorithm selection for edge deployments. Beyond standalone algorithm performance, we analyze integration challenges within existing security protocols, revealing that naive implementation of PQC in TLS 1.3 can increase handshake size by up to 7× compared to classical approaches. To address this, we propose and evaluate three optimization strategies that reduce bandwidth requirements by 40–60% without compromising security guarantees. Our investigation further encompasses memory-constrained implementation techniques, side-channel resistance measures, and hybrid classical-quantum approaches for transitional deployments. Based on these comprehensive findings, we present a risk-based migration framework and algorithm selection guidelines tailored to specific use cases, including financial transactions, secure firmware updates, vehicle-to-infrastructure communications, and IoT fleet management. This practical roadmap enables organizations to strategically prioritize systems for quantum-resistant upgrades based on data sensitivity, resource constraints, and technical feasibility. Our results conclusively demonstrate that PQC is deployment-ready for most applications, provided that implementations are carefully optimized for the specific performance characteristics and security requirements of target environments. We also identify several remaining research challenges for the community, including further optimization for ultra-constrained devices, standardization of hybrid schemes, and hardware acceleration opportunities.
The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses a significant threat to classical cryptographic systems, particularly to widely used public-key schemes that rely on integer factorisation and the discrete logarithm problem. To ensure long-term data security against potential quantum adversaries, post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is currently standardised by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). This paper goes beyond a theoretical overview by employing a systematic methodology to evaluate the empirical performance trade-offs of the newly standardised algorithms (ML-KEM, ML-DSA, and SLH-DSA) and key finalists (FN-DSA and HQC). Based on a comprehensive review of fragmented performance data, the work presents a comparative analysis focusing on data overhead, computational latency, and resource efficiency. As a primary contribution, this study proposes a deployment-oriented taxonomy that explicitly maps these PQC standards to optimal practical use cases, considering diverse constraints across Internet of Things, cloud environments, and blockchain networks. Furthermore, the paper addresses critical real-world deployment challenges, such as vulnerabilities to side-channel attacks and hardware-level implementation constraints. Ultimately, this work systematises current knowledge into a unified decision-making framework, guiding system architects in complex migration towards a quantum-resilient digital ecosystem.
6G networks will require quantum-secure cryptography deployed across core infrastructure, edge nodes, resource-constrained IoT devices. Although post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms have been standardized by NIST, their practical deployability in bandwidth and latency limited wireless systems remains unclear. This paper presents a practical evaluation of NIST selected PQC schemes, including ML-KEM (Kyber), ML-DSA (Dilithium), and Falcon. Benchmarks conducted with OpenSSL and the OQS provider on heterogeneous platforms show that while computational performance is acceptable, ciphertext and signature size expansion significantly impact handshake reliability and bandwidth efficiency, particularly at the network edge. The results highlight key system-level trade-offs and motivate the need for PQC optimization and deployment-aware design for future quantum-secure 6G networks.