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Journal of the Optical Society of America B

Vulnerabilities of quantum key distribution systems in the visible range

Boris Aleksandrovich Nasedkin, Azat Olfatovich Ismagilov, Vladimir Chistiakov, Andrei Gaidash, Aleksandr Shimko, Alexei D. Kiselev, Anton Nikolaevich Tcypkin, Vladimir Egorov, Козубов Антон Владимирович

Published Jan 27, 2026• 2 citations
Publisher

Abstract

In this paper, we investigate spectral vulnerabilities in quantum key distribution systems arising from the use of shorter-wavelength radiation in the 400–800 nm range, with particular focus on the induced photorefraction attack (IPA). Crucial elements influenced by the IPA include various types of both phase and intensity modulators, and we consider different scenarios and their implications. Through combined theoretical and experimental analysis, we demonstrate that optical components commonly used as countermeasures in the telecom band (1000–2100 nm) exhibit significantly reduced effectiveness at shorter wavelengths. The efficiency of IPA is shown to increase as the wavelength decreases, posing a substantial threat to phase-modulation-based QKD protocols. We analyze the impact of IPA across different QKD architectures and assess the feasibility of potential countermeasures under realistic implementation scenarios. Our results highlight the necessity of broadband security evaluations and wavelength-aware component design in future QKD systems.

DOI
10.1364/josab.585882

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In this paper, we investigate spectral vulnerabilities in quantum key distribution systems arising from the use of shorter-wavelength radiation in the 400–800 nm range, with particular focus on the induced photorefraction attack (IPA). Crucial elements influenced by the IPA include various types of both phase and intensity modulators, and we consider different scenarios and their implications. Through combined theoretical and experimental analysis, we demonstrate that optical components commonly used as countermeasures in the telecom band (1000–2100 nm) exhibit significantly reduced effectiveness at shorter wavelengths. The efficiency of IPA is shown to increase as the wavelength decreases, posing a substantial threat to phase-modulation-based QKD protocols. We analyze the impact of IPA across different QKD architectures and assess the feasibility of potential countermeasures under realistic implementation scenarios. Our results highlight the necessity of broadband security evaluations and wavelength-aware component design in future QKD systems.
In this paper we investigate spectral vulnerabilities in quantum key distribution systems arising from the use of shorter-wavelength radiation in the 400-800 nm range, with particular focus on the induced photorefraction attack (IPA). Crucial elements influenced by IPA include various types of modulators, both phase and intensity modulators. In the following paper, we consider different scenarios and their implications. Through combined theoretical and experimental analysis, we demonstrate that optical components commonly used as countermeasures in the telecom band (1000-2100 nm) exhibit significantly reduced effectiveness at shorter wavelengths. The efficiency of IPA is shown to increase as the wavelength decreases, posing a substantial threat to phase-modulation-based QKD protocols. We analyze the impact of IPA across different QKD architectures and assess the feasibility of potential countermeasures under realistic implementation scenarios. Our results highlight the necessity of broadband security evaluations and wavelength-aware component design in future QKD systems.
Quantum key distribution (QKD) based on the fundamental laws of quantum physics can allow the distribution of secure keys between distant users. However, imperfections in realistic devices may lead to potential security risks, which must be accurately characterized and considered in practical security analysis. High-speed optical modulators, being one of the core components of practical QKD systems, can be used to prepare the required quantum states. Here, we find that optical modulators based on LiNbO\mathrm{Li}\mathrm{Nb}\mathrm{O}LiNbO3{}_{3}3​, including phase modulators and intensity modulators, are vulnerable to photorefractive effects caused by external light injection. By changing the power of external light, eavesdroppers can control the intensities of the prepared states, posing a potential threat to the security of QKD. We have experimentally demonstrated the influence of light injection on LiNbO\mathrm{Li}\mathrm{Nb}\mathrm{O}LiNbO3{}_{3}3​-based optical modulators and analyzed the security risks caused by the potential light-injection attack, along with the corresponding countermeasures.
Implementations of quantum key distribution (QKD) need vulnerability assessment against loopholes in their optical scheme. Most of the optical attacks involve injecting or receiving extraneous light via the communication channel. An eavesdropper can choose her attack wavelengths arbitrarily within the quantum channel passband to maximize the attack performance, exploiting spectral transparency windows of system components. Here we propose a wide-spectrum security evaluation methodology to achieve full optical spectrum safety for QKD systems. This technique requires transmittance characterization in a wide spectral band with a high sensitivity. We report a testbench that characterizes insertion loss of fiber-optic components in a wide spectral range of 400–2300 nm and up to 70 dB dynamic range. To illustrate practical application of the proposed methodology, we give a full Trojan-horse attack analysis for some typical QKD system configurations and discuss briefly induced-photorefraction and detector-backflash attacks. Our methodology can be used for certification of QKD systems.
Bright illumination attack (BIA) is considered one of the most serious eavesdropping attacks on quantum key distribution (QKD) systems. Various countermeasures have been proposed to eliminate this threat. Most of them focus on bright light at the telecom wavelength of 1550 nm, often involving power monitors with a sensitivity range from 900 to 1700 nm. However, BIA at other wavelengths—typically shorter than 900 nm—could also pose a threat. The light in this wavelength range has been overlooked because avalanche photodiodes (APDs) in QKD systems have low detection efficiency for communication. However, Indium Phosphide (InP) layers, commonly used as the avalanche-amplification layer and substrate in APDs, can absorb light at these shorter wavelengths, potentially causing blinding due to photocurrent. Such attacks cannot be detected by power monitors designed for telecom wavelengths. In this study, we experimentally investigated the feasibility of BIA on practical QKD systems using the 830-nm continuous-wave light. We found clear evidence of APD blinding, which reduces quantum efficiency. This finding suggests that the security certification of commercial QKD systems should consider potential attacks using near-infrared light.
Lithium niobate (LiNbO3, LN) devices play critical roles in quantum information processing. However, for special applications like quantum key distribution (QKD), the characteristics of materials and devices and their impact on practical systems must be intensively inquired. For the first time, we reveal that the photorefractive effect in LN can be utilized as a potential loophole to carry out malicious attacks by the eavesdroppers. We take a commercial LN-based variable optical attenuator as an example to demonstrate the method we named Induced-photorefractive attack (IPA) and propose two techniques to enable controllable attacks. Our results show that eavesdroppers can fulfill an efficient source-side attack by injecting an optimized irradiation beam with only several nanowatts, which is realistic when accessing commercial fiber channels. These measure and techniques can be employed for all individual and on-chip LN devices and initially explored a new security branch for system design and standardization of real-life QKD.
Lithium niobate (LN) devices have been widely adopted in systems for quantum key distribution (QKD), but the photorefractive effect in LN devices can be exploited as a potential loophole for malicious attacks by eavesdroppers. This work points out a vulnerability of LN devices of which manufacturers and users must become aware, so that appropriate countermeasures may be implemented. Moreover, the physical mechanism and techniques introduced in this work open an important avenue to the security analysis of QKD systems.