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International Journal of Quantum Information

User-driven cross cloud-domain authentication and key agreement scheme with quantum entanglement swapping

Xuejiao Xu, Xiaoping Lou, Haoxuan Liu

Published Jan 24, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

The ability of individuals or organizations to initiate user-driven sharing of sensitive data, such as confidential financial information, is critical in cloud storage services. Numerous authentication and key agreement schemes have been proposed as solutions for encrypted data access and sharing, tailored to various scenarios. However, most of these solutions only support third-party authentication or internal cloud sharing, which can restrict the data owner’s control over access and limit the scope of data sharing. To address this issue, we propose a Cross Cloud-Domain Quantum Entanglement Swapping (CCQES) architecture that incorporates quantum circuits into the network connecting service providers and users. Within this CCQES framework, we introduce an authentication and key agreement scheme that enables two cross cloud-domain data owners to utilize quantum measurements for mutual authentication. Additionally, data owners can negotiate a session key for bidirectional data sharing through quantum gates. These features empower cloud users to maintain sovereign control over their stored data while facilitating collaboration with users from other cloud domains. Performance evaluation experiments conducted using the IBMQ QASM (Quantum Assembly Language) simulator on the cloud platform demonstrate that any user within the CCQES can authenticate with foreign users and negotiate a random key.

DOI
10.1142/s0219749926500036

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The ability of individuals or organizations to initiate user-driven sharing of sensitive data, such as confidential financial information, is critical in cloud storage services. Numerous authentication and key agreement schemes have been proposed as solutions for encrypted data access and sharing, tailored to various scenarios. However, most of these solutions only support third-party authentication or internal cloud sharing, which can restrict the data owner’s control over access and limit the scope of data sharing. To address this issue, we propose a Cross Cloud-Domain Quantum Entanglement Swapping (CCQES) architecture that incorporates quantum circuits into the network connecting service providers and users. Within this CCQES framework, we introduce an authentication and key agreement scheme that enables two cross cloud-domain data owners to utilize quantum measurements for mutual authentication. Additionally, data owners can negotiate a session key for bidirectional data sharing through quantum gates. These features empower cloud users to maintain sovereign control over their stored data while facilitating collaboration with users from other cloud domains. Performance evaluation experiments conducted using the IBMQ QASM (Quantum Assembly Language) simulator on the cloud platform demonstrate that any user within the CCQES can authenticate with foreign users and negotiate a random key.
Storing data in the form of quantum states on cloud servers can significantly enhance storage efficiency. The storage and sharing of quantum data on cloud servers necessitate consideration of security issues. An ingenious solution is to store data in the form of ciphertext on cloud servers. When data needs to be shared with users, the cloud server performs a second encryption on the data ciphertext and sends the doubly encrypted ciphertext to the users. Users can decrypt and obtain the data itself using their private keys. This process can be regarded as the transformation of the data owner’s ciphertext into a shared ciphertext by a third party (the cloud server). This study proposes a new quantum data sharing scheme for cloud servers. One of our main contributions is the realization of sharing specific data with users who have appropriate permissions (satisfying certain attribute-based conditions). The security of the scheme is demonstrated through key analysis, plaintext analysis, first-level ciphertext analysis, and second-level ciphertext analysis.
With cloud computing, users have easy and on-demand access to applications and services, catering to a dynamic group of users whose demographics evolve over time. To facilitate secure data transmission while safeguarding privacy, we propose a scalable and flexible sharing framework tailored for cloud environments, which allows users to communicate data anonymously using group signature and dynamic broadcast encryption techniques. Additionally, the convergence of AI and quantum networks enhances this framework by offering unprecedented capabilities in business and medicine through secure and high-speed data transmission. Advanced cryptographic techniques such as quantum key distribution (QKD) and AI-driven dynamic access control ensure data confidentiality and integrity amidst frequent changes in user groups. Our comprehensive solution seamlessly adapts to varying group sizes, integrating cloud computing, AI, and quantum networks to provide a robust and efficient data-sharing framework for dynamic environments.
Key agreement in open networks must not only resist quantum computing threats but also establish keys and authenticate counterparties without explicitly revealing identities. Existing solutions often rely on additional certificates or explicit signature-based authentication or require multiple rounds of interaction and complex state management, thereby imposing burdens on deployment and scalability. To address this, we propose a key agreement protocol based on a post-quantum identity-matching scheme, which unifies identity binding, implicit authentication, and session key establishment into a single key agreement process. Specifically, the initiator generates a ciphertext based on the peer’s identity and embeds session-related information within it, enabling the recipient to verify the peer’s identity and confirm the consistency of the key while decrypting and recovering the shared material. Additionally, bidirectional confirmation messages are used to eliminate negotiation deviations such as the sharing of unknown keys. Furthermore, a version control mechanism is introduced as a synchronization tag for key evolution, allowing the session key to be naturally updated within a predetermined time window. Concurrently, a revocation list maintained by a blockchain is established, enabling distributed verification and auditing of revocation status. This supports key update and revocation management without increasing the number of negotiation rounds. Performance evaluations and security analyses indicate that the protocol incurs a single-end computational overhead of less than 100 μs and a communication overhead of approximately 17.1 KB, trading moderate performance overhead for strong security semantics.
As smart home devices become more widely available, their limited resources and potential exposure to various types of cyber-attacks make it difficult for the traditional security protocols to remain effective. Cloud-enabled smart home IoT platforms have helped to improve device intelligence and overall efficiency when controlling them, but the additional use of cloud computing has also created additional complexity in controlling these devices through user-defined automated rules and remote access via vendor apps. Conventional security schemes do not consider these types of control models, nor do they provide a reasonable balance of the additional computational overhead introduced, the efficiency of communications, and the level of security provided. Additionally, with the introduction of quantum computing, current public key cryptography primitives will become obsolete, necessitating the requirement for an adoption of post-quantum security measures. To overcome these issues, this paper presents a proposal for a lightweight mutual authentication and key agreement scheme that employs post-quantum cryptography primitives to facilitate a secure interaction between the user’s cloud platforms, smart home devices, and the user. The protocol also supports remote secure control, while providing the resistance to both classical and quantum attacks. The proposed protocol has been thoroughly evaluated through formal verification using the ProVerif tool and multiple heuristic evaluation techniques. Additionally, the security features of the proposed protocol have been compared to those of several existing methods, providing evidence that it offers improved security features, forward secrecy, and quantum resistance while maintaining a lightweight profile compatible with the limitations of modern smart homes.
An efficient way of ensuring security in cloud is to give secure data access control among untrusted cloud server. Hence to improve the security, a new system could be introduced such as Quantum Security Scheme which invokes Quantum gates for encryption purpose. Quantum cryptography has been rapidly developing these days due to its efficient service which is provided by means of key generation and key distribution. Quantum Ciphertext-Policy Attribute Based Encryption (QCP-ABE) is a promising technique for data access control on encrypted data. This scheme also achieves mutual authentication among those authorities involving in the system and it also achieves both forward and backward security.
A quantum scheme for cloud data sharing based on proxy re-encryption is proposed. The user Alice stores the cipher-text of her data on cloud data center. When Alice wants to share her data with another user Bob, Alice is called the delegator and Bob is called the delegatee. The cloud service provider (called the proxy) can convert the delegator's cipher-text into the delegatee's cipher-text without decrypting the former, so that the delegatee can get the plain-text of Alice's data with his private key. The proxy cannot obtain the plain-text of the user's data stored on cloud data center. Delegator in the protocol should have the ability of producing Bell states, performing Bell basis and Z-basis measurements, and storing qubits. The quantum requirements for the delegatee are reduced. The delegatee needs to have the ability of reflecting and performing Z-basis measurement. One secret at a time (one-time one-pad) is theoretically implemented, especially when the same data is shared multiple times. The anti-selection plain-text attack security and the anti-selective cipher-text attack security are realized. Fine-granularity secret data sharing is achieved flexibly.