This work presents a foundational reformulation of field interactions, introducing the Impulse Theory of Interaction. The theory challenges the standard paradigm by positing that what is conventionally described as continuous fields is the statistical manifestation of discrete, nonlocal exchanges of momentum quanta, termed "impulsons." Core Principles: Nonlocality & Determinism: A photon (or an impulson) does not "travel" through space. Instead, the emitter and absorber are linked by a predetermined, instantaneous connection in an extended space, manifesting in our frame with the delay L/cL/c. This provides a deterministic interpretation of quantum entanglement and delayed-choice experiments. Impulson Mechanics: The electric force arises from the exchange of impulsons (iIˇ=αℏ/rIˇIˇ=αℏ/r) between charged particles at light speed. The Coulomb law is derived as the time-averaged product of the impulson amplitude and the exchange frequency (f=Iˇ⋅νf=i⋅ν). Derivation of Electromagnetism: The framework naturally yields Ampère's force law, electromagnetic induction, and the mechanism of radio-wave radiation from antennas, reproducing classical electrodynamics from first principles. Velocity-Dependent Force: The theory predicts a first-order correction to the Coulomb force proportional to the radial velocity between charges (∼vr/(2c)∼vr/(2c)). This effect quantitatively accounts for the residual Pioneer anomaly (≈2×10−10 m/s2≈2×10-10 m/s2) in the 20-70 AU range. Gravity as an Emergent Phenomenon: Gravitational attraction is derived as an artifact of the asymmetric electrical interaction between neutral proton-electron pairs, suggesting a unification path outside geometric frameworks. Deterministic Quantum Model: The principles are applied to construct a deterministic, self-stabilizing model of the electron orbit in a hydrogen atom, moving beyond probabilistic interpretations.
This work presents a foundational reformulation of field interactions, introducing the Impulse Theory of Interaction. The theory challenges the standard paradigm by positing that what is conventionally described as continuous fields is the statistical manifestation of discrete, nonlocal exchanges of momentum quanta, termed "impulsons." Core Principles: Nonlocality & Determinism: A photon (or an impulson) does not "travel" through space. Instead, the emitter and absorber are linked by a predetermined, instantaneous connection in an extended space, manifesting in our frame with the delay L/cL/c. This provides a deterministic interpretation of quantum entanglement and delayed-choice experiments. Impulson Mechanics: The electric force arises from the exchange of impulsons (iIˇ=αℏ/rIˇIˇ=αℏ/r) between charged particles at light speed. The Coulomb law is derived as the time-averaged product of the impulson amplitude and the exchange frequency (f=Iˇ⋅νf=i⋅ν). Derivation of Electromagnetism: The framework naturally yields Ampère's force law, electromagnetic induction, and the mechanism of radio-wave radiation from antennas, reproducing classical electrodynamics from first principles. Velocity-Dependent Force: The theory predicts a first-order correction to the Coulomb force proportional to the radial velocity between charges (∼vr/(2c)∼vr/(2c)). This effect quantitatively accounts for the residual Pioneer anomaly (≈2×10−10 m/s2≈2×10-10 m/s2) in the 20-70 AU range. Gravity as an Emergent Phenomenon: Gravitational attraction is derived as an artifact of the asymmetric electrical interaction between neutral proton-electron pairs, suggesting a unification path outside geometric frameworks. Deterministic Quantum Model: The principles are applied to construct a deterministic, self-stabilizing model of the electron orbit in a hydrogen atom, moving beyond probabilistic interpretations.
## Abstract ## For over a century, the foundational assumptions of wave-particle duality and the massless photon have forced standard quantum mechanics to rely on non-locality, abstract probability, and the violation of Bell's inequalities to explain entanglement. This paper introduces the Binary Unified Theory (BUT), a ground-up classical framework that replaces abstract probability amplitudes with pure, deterministic kinematics. BUT posits that all light and matter are complex kinematic systems constructed from exactly two fundamental, oppositely charged, zero-radius particles—the Poson and the Negon—traveling perpetually at the universally constant speed of light (c) and interacting via continuous, rigid 1/d fields. Within this framework:* The Photon (n=2): Light emerges naturally as a composite double-helix structure, physically uniting wave periodicity with quantized, discrete energy packets. Relativistic Doppler shift and spin projections are derived strictly from classical rotational kinematics.* Matter (n>2): Macroscopic matter and laboratory detectors are modeled as dense, non-linear chaotic swarms of fundamental charges. Rest mass and relativistic time dilation are physically realized as internal kinematic path-length constraints dictated by vector addition. * The Epistemic Barrier: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is fundamentally redefined. It is not an ontological law dictating that reality is inherently blurred, but an absolute epistemic measurement barrier mathematically guaranteed by classical N-body chaos and Liouville's Theorem during the deterministic collision of macroscopic measurement devices (n>2) with subatomic systems.* Local Realism Restored: By invalidating the idealized assumption of statistical independence through continuous field connections, this framework demonstrates that quantum correlations are a natural consequence of shared causal histories, restoring strict local realism to the subatomic domain without requiring non-local "spooky action at a distance." Additionally, this continuous-field framework provides clear geometric derivations for the emergence of macroscopic 1/d^2 forces (Coulomb and Gravity) via phase-cancellation and multipole effects, while exposing quarks and the Yukawa potential as resonant geometric artifacts of confined chaotic traffic. --- ## Included Files in this Record 1. `Donaldson-Binary_Unified_Theory.pdf` - The full, compile-ready version of record for the preprint manuscript.2+3. `main.tex` and `references.bib` - The complete LaTeX source file containing the raw `.tex` file with the `.bib` bibliography for full open-science transparency and reproducibility.4. `BUT_Simulator.zip` - An interactive, self-contained HTML/JavaScript computational engine that maps out and visualizes the dynamic, non-linear trajectories and continuous field configurations of the Binary Unified Theory. To run, extract the archive and open the HTML file in any modern web browser.
The photoelectric effect, the Compton effects, and now anticorrelation experiments have been claimed to prove that light consists of particles flying through a void. However the particle model is decisively falsified by the known wave qualities of electromagnetic radiation. Quantum Electrodynamics also uses spreading wave amplitudes; not flying particles. The evidence indicates that light is a wave and electrons are electromagnetic wave-structures that absorb and emit light in discrete wave-packets. These wave-quanta are emitted directionally and then spread in space in proportion to their wavelength. Their waves superposition with all other waves in space. In low intensity experiments, the waves that an electron in a photodetector absorbs come from the superpositioning of the source wave-quanta and background radiation. The importance of background radiation is evidenced by "dark counts". Treating electrons and the quanta they absorb and emit as particles when they are composed of waves is the source of all the paradoxes, unreality and confusion in Quantum Mechanics. The word "photon" should be replaced by "quantum" in the description of this particular electronic process. The conceptual model presented here explains the known phenomena without producing paradoxes and unifies quantum and classical electromagnetics.
This book is an attempt to build a consistent relativistic quantum theory of interacting particles. In the first part of the book "Quantum electrodynamics" we follow rather traditional approach to particle physics. Our discussion proceeds systematically from the principle of relativity and postulates of quantum measurements to the renormalization in quantum electrodynamics. In the second part of the book "Quantum theory of particles" this traditional approach is reexamined. We find that formulas of special relativity should be modified to take into account particle interactions. We also suggest reinterpreting quantum field theory in the language of physical "dressed" particles. This formulation eliminates the need for renormalization and opens up a new way for studying dynamical and bound state properties of quantum interacting systems. The developed theory is applied to realistic physical objects and processes including the energy spectrum of the hydrogen atom, the decay law of moving unstable particles, and the electric field of relativistic electron beams. These results force us to take a fresh look at some core issues of modern particle theories, in particular, the Minkowski space-time unification, the role of quantum fields and renormalization as well as the alleged impossibility of action-at-a-distance. A new perspective on these issues is suggested. It can help to solve the old problem of theoretical physics -- a consistent unification of relativity and quantum mechanics.
We present the An Theory, a unified physical framework derived from one assumption (space consists of discrete, indivisible field quanta) and one rule (adjacent field quanta attract each other, with strength proportional to the product of their excitation levels, and strictly conserved total excitation). This rule is not ad hoc: it is structurally isomorphic to van der Waals forces, nuclear binding, the Casimir effect, and Bose–Einstein condensation. From this single rule, we derive the following key results: (1) stable self-bound topological structures with a “hard core + extended ripple” profile, which accounts for wave-particle duality and yields the Born rule in the weak-excitation limit; (2) Newtonian gravity (F ∝ M1M2/r²) as the macroscopic sum of all nearest-neighbor attractions, where the inverse-square law arises solely from 3D geometry and flux conservation; (3) gravitational and motion time dilation, the equivalence principle, the constancy of c, and Lorentz invariance as emergent phenomena; (4) an all-or-nothing threshold mechanism for quantum measurement, providing complete local realist accounts of double-slit interference, quantum erasure, delayed choice, and entanglement; (5) three independent fundamental forces—gravity (baseline attraction), the strong force (high-excitation contact binding, verified across 225 parameter combinations), and the electric force (permanent stress from topological orientation knots, verified in 2D and 3D)—with the magnetic force as the dynamic effect of moving electric charges; (6) the 3D Topological Slot Model, where fractional quark charges arise from the three orthogonal dimensions of space, and all 12 Standard Model fundamental fermions are classified by “geometric complexity × excitation level”; (7) quark confinement, verified using a three-component coupled GL equation with Josephson phase-locking; (8) the mass hierarchy resulting from coherence-length relaxation versus strong-force compression; (9) the topological origin of spin-1/2 from the double-connectedness of SO(3); (10) E = mc² derived from wave mechanics. The framework yields three falsifiable predictions: no fourth-generation fermions, no magnetic monopoles, and no fractional charges other than multiples of 1/3. Its central decisive prediction—a sharp threshold step in interference visibility versus path-marker coupling strength—is qualitatively incompatible with standard quantum mechanics and testable with existing equipment. All results follow from the single assumption + single rule, with no free parameters introduced beyond the foundational rule.
Abstract The Kinematics of Quantum Space: A Classical Proof of Orbital Stability and Trajectory Continuity (Part II) Building upon the dense, discrete, nonlocal medium defined in Part I (Quantum Space, density ratio ρ = 6.54×10¹²), we prove that the electron in a hydrogen atom follows a strictly deterministic, continuous, and classical trajectory. No probabilistic interpretation, wave function collapse, or irreducible uncertainty is required. 1. Orbital velocity – six independent derivations Starting from the Bohr radius (a₀ = 5.291772×10⁻¹¹ m) and the electron mass (mₑ = 9.109384×10⁻³¹ kg), we derive the ground state orbital velocity through six independent physical paths: Galilean kinematics (v = s/t) Bohr quantization condition (mₑ v a₀ = ħ) Fine‑structure constant (v = α c, α = 1/137.036) Kinetic energy (ionization energy 13.6 eV) Coulomb–centripetal force balance Direct experimental transit time (attosecond measurements) All six converge identically to: v=e22ϵ0h=αc≈2.188×106 m/sv=2ϵ0he2=αc≈2.188×106m/s The electron is a real satellite of the nucleus, not a probability cloud. 2. Orbital stability – zero radiation from destructive interference The classical objection (Larmor's formula predicts radiative collapse within ≈47 ps) assumes a point charge. For a standing wave charge distribution satisfying 2πr = nλ (Bohr condition), we compute the Liénard–Wiechert potentials and the far‑field Poynting vector explicitly: S=1μ0Erad×Brad=0,Ptotal=∮S⋅dA=0S=μ01Erad×Brad=0,Ptotal=∮S⋅dA=0 The ground state does not radiate. Energy is locked in the standing wave. Radiation occurs only during transitions (n→m), exactly as observed in atomic spectroscopy. 3. Quantum jump as a vertical ballistic throw – continuity proven The transition n=1 → n=2 (energy ΔE = 10.2 eV) is treated as a classical vertical throw in an effective constant acceleration field g_q: gq=FCoulomb(a0)me=kee2mea02≈9.043×1022 m/s2gq=meFCoulomb(a0)=mea02kee2≈9.043×1022m/s2 Jump height: h = r₂ - r₁ = 1.5875×10⁻¹⁰ mEffective initial velocity (constant‑g approximation): v₀ ≈ 5.36×10⁶ m/sTime of ascent: t_up = v₀/g_q ≈ 59 asTotal flight time: t_total = 118 as The position function y(t) = v₀ t - ½ g_q t² is continuous and differentiable (C¹ class). The illusion of an instantaneous "quantum jump" arises solely because t_total is shorter than the temporal resolution of most instruments (Δt_instr ≫ 118 as). The trajectory exists – we are simply not fast enough to see it. 4. Spin as toroidal vortex kinematics – no superluminal speed Spin (S_z = ±½ħ) is not a rigid sphere rotation. We model the electron as a toroidal charge distribution with major radius R. The no‑superluminal condition v = ωR < c yields a lower radius bound: Rmin=ℏ2mec≈1.93×10−13 mRmin=2mecℏ≈1.93×10−13m This is physically reasonable (≈300× smaller than the Bohr radius). Quantization to ±½ħ follows from resonance stability: only prograde (+) and retrograde (–) synchronous rotations are stable, analogous to the Moon (synchronous) and Venus (retrograde). 5. Measurement as ballistic collision – Heisenberg is technical, not fundamental A typical measurement photon (λ = 0.1 nm, E ≈ 12.4 keV) carries momentum: pphoton=hλ≈6.626×10−24 kg⋅m/spphoton=λh≈6.626×10−24kg⋅m/s The electron's orbital momentum is: pelectron=mev≈1.993×10−24 kg⋅m/spelectron=mev≈1.993×10−24kg⋅m/s Ratio: p_photon / p_electron ≈ 3.33. The photon delivers more momentum than the electron possesses in its orbit. Measurement is not passive observation – it is a ballistic collision (Compton scattering). The post‑collision electron momentum is fully determinable if both the energy and scattering angle of the outgoing photon are measured precisely. "Uncertainty" is a technical deficiency of incomplete measurement, not a law of nature. 6. Five falsifiable predictions Electron transit time across one Bohr diameter: 48.4 ± 5 as (testable with attosecond spectroscopy). n=1 → n=2 transition duration: 100–120 as (continuous, not instantaneous). Heisenberg product Δx·Δp → 0 as detector precision → ∞ (no fundamental lower bound). Bell inequality violations decrease as measurement impulse strength decreases (weak measurement regime). Residual "quantum randomness" equals unmodeled environmental force noise; full force accounting restores classical determinism. 7. Conclusion All calculations use only standard constants and classical equations (Newton, Maxwell, Coulomb, Compton). No new postulates are introduced. The electron's path exists, is continuous, and follows deterministic mechanics. Quantum mysticism – wave function collapse, irreducible uncertainty, non‑locality as magic – is replaced by scale‑inverted classical physics operating within the dense geometry of Quantum Space defined in Part I. Keywords: orbital stability, Larmor paradox, destructive interference, Poynting vector, quantum jump as ballistic throw, attosecond transit time, toroidal spin, Compton scattering measurement, Bell inequalities reinterpretation, classical determinism, falsifiable predictions, scale inversion. PACS: 03.65.Sq (Semiclassical theories), 03.65.Ta (Foundations), 31.15.xk (Classical treatments of atomic structure), 32.80.t (Atomic transitions), 42.50.Ct (Quantum optics, measurement).MSC: 81Q05 (Closed and approximate solutions), 70F05 (Two‑body problem, Kepler), 78A35 (Motion of charged particles), 83A05 (Special relativity).arXiv: quant-ph, physics.class-ph, physics.atom-ph.