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IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security

Blind Quantum Computation With Certified Deletion for Quantum Inputs

Junyu Quan, Yuxun Wang, Qin Li, Lvzhou Li

Published Dec 17, 2025• 1 citation
Publisher

Abstract

Blind quantum computation (BQC) enables clients with limited quantum capabilities to protect the privacy of inputs, outputs and algorithms during the computation process. However, if a client’s private information is exposed to a server after the computation, the server can deduce the client’s output or even input. Quantum encryption with certified deletion (QECD) offers a potential solution by enabling the data owner to generate a deletion certificate, making the original plaintext inaccessible, provided the certificate is valid. Nevertheless, current QECD can only handle classical data and cannot be applied to BQC with quantum inputs. This paper first introduces the concept of certified deletion for quantum states and then proposes a single-client BQC protocol with certified deletion, where the client can use the classical certificate generated by the server to confirm whether her quantum inputs have been deleted after computation.We also give a specific example and simulate it using Qiskit to show its feasibility. In addition, the proposed protocol can also be extended to a multi-client environment in which honest clients request certified deletion if any client disconnects or behaves maliciously, thereby terminating the protocol and protecting their privacy.

DOI
10.1109/tifs.2025.3645605

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Blind quantum computation (BQC) enables clients with limited quantum capabilities to protect the privacy of inputs, outputs and algorithms during the computation process. However, if a client’s private information is exposed to a server after the computation, the server can deduce the client’s output or even input. Quantum encryption with certified deletion (QECD) offers a potential solution by enabling the data owner to generate a deletion certificate, making the original plaintext inaccessible, provided the certificate is valid. Nevertheless, current QECD can only handle classical data and cannot be applied to BQC with quantum inputs. This paper first introduces the concept of certified deletion for quantum states and then proposes a single-client BQC protocol with certified deletion, where the client can use the classical certificate generated by the server to confirm whether her quantum inputs have been deleted after computation.We also give a specific example and simulate it using Qiskit to show its feasibility. In addition, the proposed protocol can also be extended to a multi-client environment in which honest clients request certified deletion if any client disconnects or behaves maliciously, thereby terminating the protocol and protecting their privacy.
Abstract Blind quantum computation (BQC) allows a client without enough quantum technologies to delegate her quantum computation to a remote quantum server, while keeping her input, output and algorithm secure. In this paper, we propose a universal single-server and almost-classical-client BQC protocol. In this protocol, the client interfaces with only one server and the only ability of the client required is to get particles from the trusted center and forward them to the server. We present an analysis of this protocol and modify it to a universal single-server and fully-classical-client BQC protocol by improving the ability of the trusted center. Based on our protocols and recent works, a new ‘Cloud + Certificate Authority (CA)’ style is proposed for the BQC.
Certified deletion allows a client to upload encrypted data to a server as a quantum state, then later request that the server delete their data and detect whether the server complies. If verification passes, then the data on the server will remain hidden even if the decryption key is later leaked. In publicly verifiable certified deletion, the verification key is published so that anyone may check for deletion compliance. In this work, we give a general compiler to publicly verifiable certified deletion that allows the client to initially upload the *quantum* ciphertext using purely *classical* communication, assuming the post-quantum hardness of LWE in the plain model. Our approach can be applied to a wide variety of primitives, including commitments and public-key, attribute-based, identity-based, and fully-homomorphic encryption. Moreover, our constructions allow the client to classically manage the encrypted data beyond just verifying its deletion. The classical client may non-destructively audit the ciphertext via a Proof of No Intrusion to check whether it has been leaked to a third party. The classical client may also retrieve the data while simultaneously verifying its deletion from the server. Thus, they do not have to choose between retrieving the data and protecting it against future key leakage. As our core technical contribution, we give a classical-communication protocol and simulation technique that allows adapting purification-based security arguments for BB84-style states which are prepared through classical interaction. It makes the required purification available in a hybrid experiment, despite the classical transcript uniquely determining the prepared state in a real execution.
Blind quantum computation (BQC) protocol allows a client having partial quantum ability to delegate his quantum computation to a remote quantum server without leaking any information about the input, the output and the intended computation to the server. Several BQC protocols have been proposed, e.g., Li et al. in [1] proposed a triple-server BQC protocol and Xu et al. in [2] proposed a single-server BQC protocol. Though both papers claimed that their protocols can satisfy the requirement of privacy, this paper points out a security loophole in their protocols. With that the server can reveal the private information of the client.
Blind quantum computation (BQC) enables a client without enough quantum power to delegate his quantum computation to a quantum server, while keeping the input data, the algorithm and the result unknown to the server. In the studies of practical BQC protocol, an important problem is how to reduce the quantum requirement of the client. Multi-server BQC protocols have been proposed to solve this problem. We review the double-server and triple-server protocols [Li et al., Phys. Rev. A 89, 040302(R) (2014)], and propose a modified double-server BQC protocol with a trusted center. In our protocol, the servers are allowed to communicate mutually, and the client is completely classical. Furthermore, our double-server protocol can be modified into a single-server protocol by simply combining the two servers. Compared with the triple-server protocol, our double-server and single-server protocols are more simple and the client is not required to have the ability to access quantum channel. So our protocols are more practical when quantum computer is applied in the `cloud' model.
Blind quantum computation (BQC) protocol allows a client having partially quantum ability to del- egate his quantum computation to a remote quantum server without leaking any information about the input, the output and the intended computation. Recently, many BQC protocols have been proposed with the intention to make the ability of client more classical. In this paper, we propose two BQC protocols, in which the client does not have to generate photons, but only has to perform either rotation or reorder on the received photons.
Quantum computing has considerable advantages in solving some problems over its classical counterpart. Currently various physical systems are developed to construct quantum computers but it is still challenging and the first use of quantum computers may adopt the cloud style. Blind quantum computing (BQC) provides a solution for clients with limited quantum capabilities to delegate their quantum computation to remote quantum servers while keeping input, output, and even algorithm private. In this paper, we propose three multi-party verifiable blind quantum computing (VBQC) protocols with identity authentication to handle clients with varying quantum capabilities in quantum networks, such as those who can just make measurements, prepare single qubits, or perform a few single-qubit gates. They are client-friendly and flexible since the clients can achieve BQC depending on their own quantum devices and resist both insider outsider attacks in quantum networks. Furthermore, all the three proposed protocols are verifiable, namely that the clients can verify the correctness of their calculations.