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Vaihemoduloitujen fotoneiden bolometrinen mittaus

Lukkari, Santtu

Published Dec 2, 2025• 0 citations
OpenAlex

Abstract

Propagating microwave photons have gained great interest due to their potential being used in the applications of the quantum technology, such as communication and sensing. The use of propagating microwave photons as information carriers requires methodology that is able to characterize the incoming photon signals. Since the signal could consist of only a few photons, the signal detection is truly a challenging task. Amplifying a weak microwave signal to room temperature would cause excessive noise and cover the signal. Previously, amplification-free signals have been measured with qubit-based photon detection, which relies on excitation of the qubit. This method is limited by a narrow bandwidth, since the qubit can absorb only a few discrete energies. However, a bolometer utilizing resistive absorption of the photons offers a broad bandwidth and enables the measurement without amplification. This thesis examines the use of bolometer as a phase and amplitude sensitive detector for propagating microwave signals. The phase sensitivity of the bolometer is enabled by homodyne detection, where the measurement signal is combined with a strong local oscillator signal. The combining of these signals is implemented with a beam splitter. Amplitude sensitivity is studied by repeating the measurement with multiple signal powers, and phase sensitivity is studied using a phase modulated measurement signal with different modulation amplitudes. The data is extracted from the bolometer by assuming a linear dependency between the average resonance frequency and the average photon number. Similarly, a linear dependency is assumed between the variances. This thesis demonstrates that the bolometer is able to detect changes in the measurement signal power and phase by measuring the average photon number and variance. The average photon number and variance oscillate, meaning that the phase modulation is detected. The oscillation amplitudes increase as a function of power indicating the amplitude sensitivity. A strong local oscillator signal allows the detection of weak signals without amplification, and thus the measurement can be conducted with minimal added noise. These results together show, that the bolometer is a versatile microwave detector and a promising candidate for quantum technology applications in the microwave region.

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Propagating microwave photons have gained great interest due to their potential being used in the applications of the quantum technology, such as communication and sensing. The use of propagating microwave photons as information carriers requires methodology that is able to characterize the incoming photon signals. Since the signal could consist of only a few photons, the signal detection is truly a challenging task. Amplifying a weak microwave signal to room temperature would cause excessive noise and cover the signal. Previously, amplification-free signals have been measured with qubit-based photon detection, which relies on excitation of the qubit. This method is limited by a narrow bandwidth, since the qubit can absorb only a few discrete energies. However, a bolometer utilizing resistive absorption of the photons offers a broad bandwidth and enables the measurement without amplification. This thesis examines the use of bolometer as a phase and amplitude sensitive detector for propagating microwave signals. The phase sensitivity of the bolometer is enabled by homodyne detection, where the measurement signal is combined with a strong local oscillator signal. The combining of these signals is implemented with a beam splitter. Amplitude sensitivity is studied by repeating the measurement with multiple signal powers, and phase sensitivity is studied using a phase modulated measurement signal with different modulation amplitudes. The data is extracted from the bolometer by assuming a linear dependency between the average resonance frequency and the average photon number. Similarly, a linear dependency is assumed between the variances. This thesis demonstrates that the bolometer is able to detect changes in the measurement signal power and phase by measuring the average photon number and variance. The average photon number and variance oscillate, meaning that the phase modulation is detected. The oscillation amplitudes increase as a function of power indicating the amplitude sensitivity. A strong local oscillator signal allows the detection of weak signals without amplification, and thus the measurement can be conducted with minimal added noise. These results together show, that the bolometer is a versatile microwave detector and a promising candidate for quantum technology applications in the microwave region.
Propagating photons serve as essential links for distributing quantum information and entanglement across distant nodes. Knowledge of their Wigner functions not only enables their deployment as active information carriers but also provides error diagnostics when photons passively leak from a quantum processing unit. While well-established for standing waves, characterizing propagating microwave photons requires post-processing of room-temperature signals with excessive amplification noise. Here, we demonstrate amplification-free Wigner function tomography of propagating microwave photons using a superconductor--normal-metal--superconductor bolometer based on the resistive heating effect of absorbed radiation. By introducing two-field interference in power detection, the bolometer acts as a sensitive and broadband quadrature detector that samples the input field at selected angles at millikelvin with no added noise. Adapting the principles of computed tomography (CT) in medical imaging, we implement Wigner function CT by combining quadrature histograms across different projection angles and demonstrate it for Gaussian states at the single-photon level. Compressed sensing and neural networks further reduce the projections to three without compromising the reconstruction quality. These results address the long-standing challenge of characterizing propagating microwave photons in a superconducting quantum network and establish a new avenue for real-time quantum error diagnostics and correction.
Sensitive and reliable photon detectors are ubiquitous tools in countless fields of engineering and the sciences. One of the most mature and widely applied approaches to photodetection is bolometry, where the absorption of radiation causes a measurable change in the temperature of the absorber material. Applications of bolometry include fields such as astrophysics, medicine, particle physics, and metrology, all of which greatly benefit from the development of more versatile and efficient detectors. In the field of superconducting quantum circuits, considerable progress has recently been made in developing ultrasensitive superconducting bolometers. Operating in the single-photon regime, these devices hold great potential for several applications within quantum technology, including qubit state measurement and characterization of microwave components and cryogenic environments. State-of-the-art bolometers based on graphene have been shown to reach sufficient energy resolution and operation speed to be applicable in the context of circuit quantum electrodynamics. In this thesis, a superconducting bolometer based on superconductor-normal-metal-superconductor Josephson junctions is studied. In particular, a detection protocol based on optimal filtering of the noisy detector output signal is implemented to detect microwave pulses during continuous operation of the device. The fidelity of the implemented real-time detection scheme is experimentally tested and compared to the theoretical energy resolution of the studied bolometer, computed from noise equivalent power. The device is found to reach 50% detection probability with minimal dark-count rate at pulse energies of approximately 2.2 zJ, exceeding the predicted resolution of 0.75 zJ by only a factor of three. In addition, the characteristic energy of the detector is determined to be approximately 1.5 zJ based on the total energy of pulses detected with fidelity F=0.5. The results give hope of future applications of the detection scheme to more sensitive bolometer samples.
In this Letter, we experimentally demonstrated that Josephson threshold detectors (JTDs) could be developed to implement the sensitive detection of broadband microwave photons. Beginning with the numerical simulations of the damped dynamics for the macroscopic phase particle generated by a Josephson junction (JJ), we showed that the time-domain threshold voltage state switched measurements of the JJ driven by a low-frequency triangular wave current, which could be utilized to implement the sensitive microwave photons detection. The detectable signal power can be determined by using the Kumar–Caroll index to quantify the distinguishability between two statistical distributions on the measured threshold switched durations of the JJ with and without the signal input. Experimentally, we fabricated the Al/AlOx/Al JJ and measured its threshold responses, at 50 mK temperature, to the input microwave photons at the frequency of ∼5 GHz. The experimental results indicated that the weak microwave signals, which are phenomenologically threatened by the additional thermal noise that modifies the damped phase dynamics of the JJ, can be detected by the fabricated JTD. The detectable power of the microwave signals demonstrated here was calibrated as about −92 dBm (corresponding to the photons rate of ∼2×108 photons/ms). Based on the numerical simulations for optimizing the relevant performance indicators of the detectors, we further argue that the JTDs could be utilized to achieve the sensitive detection of broadband microwave photons at the single-photon level.
Characterizing quantum states of the electromagnetic field at microwave frequencies requires fast and sensitive detectors that can simultaneously probe the field's time-dependent amplitude and its quantum fluctuations. So far, this has been achieved by using either homodyne detection or fast digitizers. Both methods rely on the extraction of microwave radiation through an amplification chain towards the detector placed at room temperature, thereby limiting the time resolution to the ~10-GHz bandwidth of the measurement chain. Additionally, the coupling of high-impedance samples to the 50-Ω measurement chain is very weak, setting strong limitations on the detection sensitivity. In this work, we demonstrate an on-chip quantum sensor that exploits the phase of a single-electron wavefunction, measured in an electronic Fabry-Pérot interferometer, to detect the amplitude of a classical time-dependent electric field. The interferometer is implemented in a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum Hall conductor. The time resolution, limited by the temporal width of the electronic wavepacket, is ~35 ps. The interferometry technique provides a voltage resolution of ~50 μV, corresponding to a few microwave photons. Importantly, our detector measures both phase and contrast of the interference pattern. The latter opens the way to the detection of non-classical electromagnetic fields, such as squeezed or Fock states.
The accuracy of microwave measurements is not only critical for applications in telecommunication and radar but also for future quantum computers. Qubit technologies such as superconducting qubits or spin qubits require the detection of minuscule signals, typically achieved by reflecting a microwave tone off a resonator that is coupled to the qubit. Noise from cabling and amplification, e.g., from temperature variations, can be detrimental to readout fidelity. We present an approach to detect phase and amplitude changes of a device under test based on the differential measurement of microwave tones generated by two first-order sidebands of a carrier signal. The two microwave tones are sent through the same cable to the measured device that exhibits a narrow-band response for one sideband and leaves the other unaffected. The reflected sidebands are interfered by down-conversion with the carrier. By choosing the amplitude and phases of the sidebands, suppression of either common-amplitude or common-phase noise can be achieved, allowing for fast, stable measurements of frequency shifts and quality factors of resonators. Test measurements were performed on NbN\mathrm{NbN}NbN superconducting resonators at 25 mK to calibrate and characterize the experimental setup and to study time-dependent fluctuations of their resonance frequency.
While single-photon counting is routinely achieved in the optical domain, operational single microwave photon detectors (SMPDs) have only recently been demonstrated. SMPDs are critical for sensing weak signals from incoherent emitters, with applications ranging from the detection of individual electron spins and dark-matter candidates to advancements in hybrid quantum devices and superconducting quantum computing. These detectors offer a substantial advantage over quantum-limited amplification schemes by bypassing the standard quantum limit for power detection, therefore further reductions in their intrinsic noise are essential for advancing quantum sensing at microwave frequencies. Several SMPD designs utilize the state of a superconducting qubit to encode the detection of an itinerant photon, and rely on a non-destructive photon-qubit interaction. Here, we leverage this Quantum-Non-Demolition feature by repeatedly measuring the impinging photon with cascaded Four-Wave-Mixing processes and encoding the detection on several qubits. This cascaded detector mitigates the intrinsic local noise of individual qubits, achieving a two-order-of-magnitude reduction in intrinsic detector noise at the cost of halving the efficiency. We report an intrinsic sensitivity of 8(1)×10−24W/Hz8(1)\times10^{-24}\text{W}/\sqrt{\text{Hz}}8(1)×10−24W/Hz​, with an operational sensitivity of 5.9(6)×10−23W/Hz5.9(6)\times 10^{-23}\text{W}/\sqrt{\text{Hz}}5.9(6)×10−23W/Hz​ limited by thermal photons in the input line.