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Parallel Processing Letters

Proxy Quantum Games

Georgios D. Varsamis, Ioannis Liliopoulos, Hamed Mohammadbagherpoor, Andreas K. Kostopoulos, Kristin L. Milchanowski, Evangelos T. Karamatskos, Panagiotis Dimitrakis, Richard P. Padbury, Ioannis G. Karafyllidis

Published Sep 1, 2025• 1 citation
Publisher

Abstract

Quantum games extend classical game theory into the quantum realm by incorporating quantum players and quantum strategies. Two-player quantum games have been widely studied and applied, among other areas, in optimization and decision-making. In this work, we introduce, formalize and analyze a novel class of three-player quantum games, referred to as Proxy Quantum Games (PQGs). In this setting, one player, the Controller, influences or governs the strategic operations executed by a second player, the Proxy, who, in turn, competes directly against a third player, the Opponent. The strategic influence is implemented via controlled unitary operations, whereby the Proxy’s available strategies are conditioned on the Controller’s quantum state. We further generalize the PQG framework by incorporating multiple Controllers acting on a common Proxy, thereby enabling the study of higher-order strategic interactions and multi-agent influence structures. The objective under consideration is the maximization of the Controller’s expected payoff, under various configurations of strategic control and entanglement. Comparative analyses are conducted between the PQG formulation and conventional multiplayer quantum games, highlighting key differences in strategic behavior and payoff distributions.

DOI
10.1142/s0129626425500148

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Quantum games extend classical game theory into the quantum realm by incorporating quantum players and quantum strategies. Two-player quantum games have been widely studied and applied, among other areas, in optimization and decision-making. In this work, we introduce, formalize and analyze a novel class of three-player quantum games, referred to as Proxy Quantum Games (PQGs). In this setting, one player, the Controller, influences or governs the strategic operations executed by a second player, the Proxy, who, in turn, competes directly against a third player, the Opponent. The strategic influence is implemented via controlled unitary operations, whereby the Proxy’s available strategies are conditioned on the Controller’s quantum state. We further generalize the PQG framework by incorporating multiple Controllers acting on a common Proxy, thereby enabling the study of higher-order strategic interactions and multi-agent influence structures. The objective under consideration is the maximization of the Controller’s expected payoff, under various configurations of strategic control and entanglement. Comparative analyses are conducted between the PQG formulation and conventional multiplayer quantum games, highlighting key differences in strategic behavior and payoff distributions.
The reachability of quantum games refers to the ability of two players to reach a certain subspace of Hilbert spaces in a quantum game modeled by a newly proposed quantum game process (QGP). We refer to this as quantum reachability games (QRGs). Reachability analysis is crucial in studying the strategic behavior and decision-making processes of players in quantum games, as it aids in devising optimal strategies to achieve desired objectives. In a QRG, players make decisions based on their quantum strategies related to decision epochs, which are represented by quantum operations or quantum measurements. We present an algorithm for evaluating two-player strategies, and investigate the optimal QRG for two players, where the goal of player 1 is to maximize his/her probability of reaching a given target subspace, while player 2 aims to minimize it. We show that any optimal QRG are determined, i.e., both of the two players have the same probability of winning in non-cooperative reachability games. Furthermore, our results also demonstrate that reachability games in the quantum world can be undecidable in certain cases. These findings are significantly distinct from those in the probabilistic or classical scenarios. Finally, we present three case studies, penny flipover, ambushing quantum walk and peer-to-peer scheme game on quantum network, to illustrate the potential applications and implications of QRGs.
In this paper, we extend the quantum game theory of Prisoner’s Dilemma to the N-player case. The final state of quantum game theory of N-player Prisoner’s Dilemma is derived, which can be used to investigate the payoff of each player. As demonstration, two cases (2-player and 3-player) are studied to illustrate the superiority of quantum strategy in the game theory. Specifically, the non-unique entanglement parameter is found to maximize the total payoff, which oscillates periodically. Finally, the optimal strategic set is proved to depend on the selection of initial states.
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Game theory studies strategic decision-making among rational agents, and many classical games can be mapped onto interaction models such as the Ising model. Quantum game theory extends this framework by allowing players to exploit quantum superposition and entanglement. In this work, we study quantum games using an operator-based formulation derived from the transverse-field quantum Ising model. We show that the Hamiltonian-driven dynamics naturally generate entangling operator which resolve the dilemma in the game settings. This leads to a clear quantum advantage over classical outcomes. Unlike standard quantization schemes based on fixed entangling gates, the present approach enables tunable entanglement, controlled directly by physical Hamiltonian parameters, providing a hardware-relevant perspective on quantum game design.
Abstract Multiplayer quantum games have received growing attention due to the ability of quantum computational models to access enlarged strategic spaces, thereby enabling the emergence of nonclassical Nash equilibria and Pareto-efficient solutions. Concurrently, graph-theoretic representations have become a standard tool for encoding relational dependencies among interacting players. This work establishes a unified formalism that embeds arbitrary graph topologies into parametrized quantum-game circuits, providing a direct mapping between network structure and the strategic interaction space of quantum players. Within this framework, we analytically and computationally evaluate how graph-induced interpersonal couplings modulate payoff distributions over repeated quantum-game iterations. In addition, we integrate a reward-driven adaptation algorithm that allows players to optimize their local strategy parameters dynamically with respect to accumulated payoffs. Experimental results demonstrate that the equilibrium reward landscape is highly sensitive to the players’ graph-theoretic centrality and the weighted structure of their adversarial and cooperative relationships.
We study how strategic interaction can arise from controlled quantum dynamics rather than being imposed as an external mathematical structure. We introduce a class of interaction-defined quantum games in which players are represented by distinguishable quantum walkers, strategies correspond to local coin operations, and payoffs are defined as expectation values of physical observables. Using interacting discrete-time quantum walks as a concrete platform, we demonstrate numerically that competitive, cooperative, and asymmetric games admit stable stationary strategy profiles when the walkers are coupled, while no non-trivial equilibria exist in the absence of interaction. To clarify the game-theoretic structure, we derive an analytic perturbative decomposition of the payoff function in the weak-interaction regime, showing explicitly that strategic coupling originates from interaction-induced interference terms in the joint probability distribution. For a collision-based phase interaction, the payoff becomes non-separable at first order in the interaction strength and generically admits stationary points satisfying the Nash conditions. Our results provide a physically explicit realization of strategic interdependence in quantum transport processes and establish interacting quantum walks as a minimal platform for studying game-theoretic behavior emerging from unitary dynamics.