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Optics Communications

Impact of dynamic ocean-atmosphere interface on quantum communication performance

Yufeng Yang, Wuchuandong Pei, Yijun Zhang

Published Nov 28, 2025• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Quantum communication at the sea-air interface is an important direction for expanding quantum information networks. However, current research has not sufficiently considered how waves and bubbles at this interface affect quantum communication. The paper develops a system combining the Cox-Munk sea surface wave model with the Hall-Novarini bubble scattering model, using Monte Carlo simulations to model photon propagation in air-sea channels. Based on data for different wind speeds (5–20 m/s) and four water types (pure, clear, coastal, harbor), the study examines how the sea-air interface influences quantum bit error rate (QBER) and received power for quantum communication. Results show that in pure seawater, higher wind speeds decrease the maximum secure communication depth from 63 m to 25 m. In waters with high turbidity, scattering effects dominate, limiting communication depth to within 10 m. This research identifies environmental thresholds for marine quantum channels, offering a theoretical basis and practical guidelines for designing and improving underwater quantum communication systems.

DOI
10.1016/j.optcom.2025.132723

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Quantum communication at the sea-air interface is an important direction for expanding quantum information networks. However, current research has not sufficiently considered how waves and bubbles at this interface affect quantum communication. The paper develops a system combining the Cox-Munk sea surface wave model with the Hall-Novarini bubble scattering model, using Monte Carlo simulations to model photon propagation in air-sea channels. Based on data for different wind speeds (5–20 m/s) and four water types (pure, clear, coastal, harbor), the study examines how the sea-air interface influences quantum bit error rate (QBER) and received power for quantum communication. Results show that in pure seawater, higher wind speeds decrease the maximum secure communication depth from 63 m to 25 m. In waters with high turbidity, scattering effects dominate, limiting communication depth to within 10 m. This research identifies environmental thresholds for marine quantum channels, offering a theoretical basis and practical guidelines for designing and improving underwater quantum communication systems.
Cross-media and confidentiality are key features of next-generation optical communications. Quantum communication is regarded as a promising new form of secure communication. However, the cross-media transmission of quantum pulses tends to suffer from severe attenuation, which inevitably degrades the security of the whole system. In this paper, we consider the configuration of the continuous-variable quantum key distribution through an air–water cross-media channel that involves the lower-atmospheric channel, the underwater channel, and the air–water interface. We consider the effect of air bubbles in seawater, and the effect of the dynamic air–water interface as well. In particular, dynamic characteristics of light extinction and fluctuations caused by seawater and bubbles have been demonstrated with Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. Based on this MC-based model, we demonstrate the communication viability, and simulation results show that in clear seawater conditions with a wind speed of 5 m/s and a zenith angle of 15°, the receiver is able to achieve an effective secret key rate (10 −4 bits/pulse) even at 9.71 m depth. Smaller zenith angles and lower wind speeds contribute to an increase in the interface secret key rate.
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Quantum key distribution (QKD) has been identified as a viable solution for secure underwater communication. This study aims to characterize the impact of natural turbulent waters on systems. The performance of QKD systems is analyzed in terms of the quantum bit error rate and the secret key rate. We expand upon previous studies which only considered large separations by including large and small separations by comparing the turbulence length scale with the distance between two observation points. To that end, we obtain the analytical expression of the wave structure function (WSF) for small separation for propagating Gaussian beams. Since the WSF describes how the amplitude and phase of an optical wave change as it travels through the varying refractive index of the turbulent medium over a given distance, the accurate characterization remains essential in terms of revealing the beam wavefront distortion. Leveraging the practical parameters of underwater environment and communication systems, we demonstrate that the average temperature, average salinity concentration, temperature-salinity gradient, temperature and energy dissipation rates of turbulent water impact the performance and security of the QKD systems to a nonnegligible extent. It is also observed that the waters having high chlorophyll concentrations, e.g., coastal waters, drastically decrease the performance of the QKD systems due to strong absorption and scattering effects. The findings and insights gained from this study may help advance secure underwater communication, which in turn will aid in establishing future QKD networks. Potential applications of this research include secure underwater communication for defense, data gathering for marine environmental monitoring, remote data transmission, and deep-sea exploration.
The current literature on quantum key distribution is limited mainly to transmissions over fiber optic, atmospheric, or satellite links and is not directly applicable to underwater environments with different channel characteristics. In this paper, we analyze the quantum bit error rate (QBER) and secret key rate (SKR) performance of the well-known BB84 protocol in underwater channels. As a path loss model, we consider a modified version of the Beer–Lambert formula, which takes into account the effect of scattering. We derive a closed-form expression for the wave structure function to determine the average power transfer over a turbulent underwater path and use this to obtain an upper bound on QBER as well as a lower bound on SKR. Based on the derived bounds, we present the performance of the BB84 protocol in different water types including clear, coastal, and turbid and under different atmospheric conditions such as clear, hazy, and overcast. We further investigate the effect of system parameters such as aperture size and detector field of view on QBER and SKR performance metrics.
In the context of secure underwater optical communications, this study examines the performance of the entanglement-based BBM92 protocol when the source generates non-maximally entangled photon pairs. The impact of seawater optical properties, as well as source correlation characteristics, on transmission efficiency is analyzed for three types of nonturbulent channels: clear, coastal, and turbid water. The main performance metrics, including quantum bit error rate (QBER), secret key rate (SKR), and correlation probability, are analytically derived and evaluated as functions of transmission distance between two communicating parties. Monte Carlo simulation results validate our analytical models and quantify performance under different channel conditions.
Addressing the key technical challenges in air-sea cross-medium quantum communication between aircraft and submarines, this paper focuses on quantifying the link attenuation disparity between the uplink (submarine-to-aircraft) and downlink (aircraft-to-submarine) paths and optimizing system parameters. Using the Monte Carlo (MC) simulation method, a multi-medium transmission model encompassing the atmosphere, the air-sea interface, and seawater was constructed to precisely characterize the absorption and scattering behavior of optical signals in the complex cross-medium environment. Building on these attenuation characteristics, a secret key rate calculation model was derived in conjunction with the Gaussian-modulated coherent state (GMCS) Continuous-Variable Quantum Key Distribution (CV-QKD) protocol. The simulation results analyze the influence pattern of depth on the uplink and downlink key rates and clarify the underlying mechanisms for the attenuation disparity between the two paths. The study verifies that the downlink path possesses superior key rate performance due to weaker scattering and angular divergence effects. Furthermore, the paper investigates the modulating effect of modulation variance on the key rate and determines its optimal range.