As a popular decentralized and distributed database exhibiting transparency and unforgeability, blockchain has received widespread attention. At the time of writing, its security hinges on classical cryptography, which maintains a high grade of security by exploiting the potentially excessive computational complexity of mathematical problems to be solved by state-of-the-art computers. However, as computational technology develops, this encryption philosophy is likely to be challenged and there is a risk of ’store now and decrypt later’ attacks. A compelling solution to this security threat is to intrinsically integrate blockchain with quantum technology. Against this background, we propose a quantum blockchain scheme relying on quantum secure direct communication (QSDC). Specifically, we conceive QSDC-based blockchain for identity verification, message encryption, and consensus. We also propose an optical network based realization of the proposed QSDC-aided blockchain using present-day technology. Our simulations quantify the benefits of the scheme, especially in terms of its resource utilization. This work provides a new prospect for the intrinsic fusion of quantum information technology and blockchain technology, paving the way for its rapid commercialization.
As a popular decentralized and distributed database exhibiting transparency and unforgeability, blockchain has received widespread attention. At the time of writing, its security hinges on classical cryptography, which maintains a high grade of security by exploiting the potentially excessive computational complexity of mathematical problems to be solved by state-of-the-art computers. However, as computational technology develops, this encryption philosophy is likely to be challenged and there is a risk of ’store now and decrypt later’ attacks. A compelling solution to this security threat is to intrinsically integrate blockchain with quantum technology. Against this background, we propose a quantum blockchain scheme relying on quantum secure direct communication (QSDC). Specifically, we conceive QSDC-based blockchain for identity verification, message encryption, and consensus. We also propose an optical network based realization of the proposed QSDC-aided blockchain using present-day technology. Our simulations quantify the benefits of the scheme, especially in terms of its resource utilization. This work provides a new prospect for the intrinsic fusion of quantum information technology and blockchain technology, paving the way for its rapid commercialization.
Blockchain technology affords data integrity protection and building trust mechanisms in transactions for distributed networks, and, therefore, is seen as a promising revolutionary information technology. At the same time, the ongoing breakthrough in quantum computation technology contributes toward large-scale quantum computers, which might attack classic cryptography, seriously threatening the classic cryptography security currently employed in the blockchain. As a better alternative, a quantum blockchain has high expectations of being immune to quantum computing attacks perpetrated by quantum adversaries. Although several works have been presented, the problems of impracticality and inefficiency in quantum blockchain systems remain prominent and need to be addressed. First, this paper develops a quantum-secure blockchain (QSB) scheme by introducing a consensus mechanism-quantum proof of authority (QPoA) and an identity-based quantum signature (IQS)-wherein QPoA is used for new block generation and IQS is used for transaction signing and verification. Second, QPoA is developed by adopting a quantum voting protocol to achieve secure and efficient decentralization for the blockchain system, and a quantum random number generator (QRNG) is deployed for randomized leader node election to protect the blockchain system from centralized attacks like distributed denial of service (DDoS). Compared to previous work, our scheme is more practical and efficient without sacrificing security, greatly contributing to better addressing the challenges in the quantum era. Extensive security analysis demonstrates that our scheme provides better protection against quantum computing attacks than classic blockchains. Overall, our scheme presents a feasible solution for blockchain systems against quantum computing attacks through a quantum strategy, contributing toward quantum-secured blockchain in the quantum era.
Abstract Optical networks are the backbone of today’s high-speed communication systems, but they can be attacked in many ways. Hackers might use advanced methods like wormhole attacks, Sybil attacks, or single-point failures to disrupt or take control of the network. Most current security systems rely on complex math to protect data. But with the development of quantum computers, those systems are no longer fully safe. Quantum computers could break these protections easily in the future. This problem can be solved by integrating two powerful technologies: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and blockchain This combination is called quantum-secured blockchain. This system removes the need for older, potentially breakable digital signatures, and instead uses methods that are resistant to quantum computer attacks. They also rely on new quantum materials and nanomaterials, which help in making better light sources, reducing signal loss and storing quantum information more reliably. AI and machine learning are now being used to speed up the discovery of these advanced materials such as superconductors, quantum dots and special optical fibers that are required to make the technology practical and scalable. This paper explains the different types of attacks that can occur in optical networks and the ways to protect optical networks using quantum-secured blockchain along. It gives the introduction to blockchain technology along with its security weaknesses, and then focuses on Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), which can make blockchain much stronger against attacks from powerful quantum computers. It also provides an overview of how quantum-secured blockchain works to secure optical communication networks.
Abstract Blockchain technology is a highly developed database system that shares information within a business web. It stores details in blocks connected chronologically, ensuring information integrity through consensus mechanisms that prevent unauthorised alterations. This decentralised system removes the need for a believable mediator, mitigating vulnerabilities and enhancing transaction security. Blockchain’s application spans the energy, finance, media, entertainment, and retail sectors. However, classical blockchain faces threats from quantum computing advancements, necessitating the development of quantum blockchain technology. Quantum blockchain, leveraging quantum computation and information theory, offers enhanced security and immutability. In this paper, different mathematical foundations, practical implementations and effectiveness of lattice‐based cryptography in securing blockchain applications are discussed. Analysis of how the cryptographic techniques can protect blockchain systems against quantum attacks is being done by using mathematical formulations and examples. Quantum computing strengthens blockchain security with advanced encryption and authentication, which is critical for safeguarding diverse sectors from evolving cyber threats. Further study on quantum‐resistant design is necessary if blockchain networks are to be robust and intact in the face of future technological developments.
The deployment of optical network infrastructure and development of new network services are growing rapidly for beyond 5/6G networks. However, optical networks are vulnerable to several types of security threats, such as single-point failure, wormhole attacks, and Sybil attacks. Since the uptake of e-commerce and e-services has seen an unprecedented surge in recent years, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, the security of these transactions is essential. Blockchain is one of the most promising solutions because of its decentralized and distributed ledger technology, and has been employed to protect these transactions against such attacks. However, the security of blockchain relies on the computational complexity of certain mathematical functions, and because of the evolution of quantum computers, its security may be breached in real-time in the near future. Therefore, researchers are focusing on combining quantum key distribution (QKD) with blockchain to enhance blockchain network security. This new technology is known as quantum-secured blockchain. This article describes different attacks in optical networks and provides a solution to protect networks against security attacks by employing quantum-secured blockchain in optical networks. It provides a brief overview of blockchain technology with its security loopholes, and focuses on QKD, which makes blockchain technology more robust against quantum attacks. Next, the article provides a broad view of quantum-secured blockchain technology. It presents the network architecture for the future research and development of secure and trusted optical networks using quantum-secured blockchain. The article also highlights some research challenges and opportunities.
Amid breakthroughs in quantum computing, blockchain systems are experiencing a dual-track evolution characterized by threats from quantum attacks and empowerment through quantum technologies. Traditional blockchain architectures, which rely on public-private key cryptography and hash functions, face systemic risks to core functions such as transaction integrity verification and consensus security when exposed to quantum attacks. This paper systematically analyzes and compares two distinct technical approaches in the field of quantum-secure blockchain: post-quantum blockchain and quantum blockchain. The former enhances existing systems by integrating post-quantum cryptographic algorithms to resist quantum threats, aiming for a smooth transition from current architectures. The latter reconstructs distributed ledger technology based on quantum information properties such as entanglement, forming novel architectures involving quantum key distribution networks, quantum digital signatures, and quantum consensus algorithms. The feasibility and development potential of these approaches are examined in application scenarios such as industrial IoT. A comparative analysis is conducted on their technical constraints and implementation challenges from the perspectives of transaction efficiency, security model validation, and standardization maturity. This lays a foundation for future empirical research. Finally, potential development paths are discussed, and targeted research directions such as diversified migration and dynamic hybrid strategies are proposed to guide further studies.
The advent of quantum computing has generated apprehensions regarding the viability and security of conventional cryptographic algorithms. These algorithms safeguard the decentralized trust built into the blockchain, which relies on decentralized cryptographic consensus, instead of a central authority. Simultaneously, quantum computing has also unveiled unprecedented possibilities, opportunities and risks in the realm of technology. The significance of this is that numerous sub-routines employed within the blockchain, such as consensus protocols, data transmission, storage, and communication, heavily depend on conventional cryptographic algorithms like Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA). However, these algorithms are susceptible to quantum algorithms, which have the potential to effectively compromise them once quantum computers with sufficient computational capabilities are developed. Blockchain, although primarily recognized for its association with cryptocurrencies, is essentially a decentralized and trustless distributed ledger system. Its purpose is to enable decentralized communication, coordination, and the attainment of desired objectives through consensus mechanisms. A notable illustration of this concept is a blockchain transaction. The advent of quantum computing poses a significant threat to the security of blockchain systems, as the asymmetric algorithms employed within their many components will likely become obsolete. This jeopardizes the integrity of the blockchain system, which underpins a multi-billion dollar economy reliant on its inherent transparency and safety. This paper seeks to present an overview of the various threats faced by blockchain systems, examine the potential of quantum algorithms in offering cryptographic signatures for these systems, and provide a broad perspective on how to protect blockchain systems from quantum threats by utilizing quantum algorithms for cryptographic signatures. This study enhances the comprehension of existing vulnerabilities in blockchain systems, specifically focusing on the potential risks posed by quantum computing. Additionally, it sheds light on the ongoing efforts within the industry and current research endeavors aimed at addressing these weaknesses.