Bell’s inequality is derived by resorting to a hidden-variable theory devised for resolving the Einstein-Bohr debate on the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics. The legitimacy of quantum superposition for describing the physical world is the essence of the debate. Einstein argued against the legitimacy of quantum superposition. Testing Bell’s inequality by experiment with the experimental result explained by Bell’s theorem opened the door to so-called quantum information technologies. In quantum information theory, “quantum bit” (or “qubit” for short) in a form of quantum superposition is supposed to carry quantum information. Although most physicists believe that Einstein’s vision of the physical world contradicts the experimental result of testing Bell’s inequality, actually neither the experimental result nor Bell’s theorem is relevant to Einstein’s viewpoint. In the present paper, a new principle, the general principle of measurements, is proved as a mathematical theorem. Based on this principle, the experiment for testing Bell’s inequality and so-called experimental evidence for physically realizable “qubit” are scrutinized. The findings are as follows. The experimental result of testing Bell’s inequality and the measurement outcomes of experiments involving “qubit” are all erroneously explained. Bell’s inequality failed to capture the essence of the Einstein-Bohr debate, and Bell’s theorem is irrelevant to Einstein’s vision of the physical world. Quantum mechanics can be completed by using disjunction (“or”) as the logical relation between the orthonormal vectors that span an arbitrarily given Hilbert space without resorting to any hidden-variable theory, while the mathematical setting will remain essentially unchanged. All kinds of “qubit” violate the general principle of measurements and can only describe imaginary objects that do not exist in the physical world. The findings inevitably lead to a very regrettable conclusion: Quantum information has no physical carers and all quantum information technologies are not physically realizable.
Bell’s inequality is derived by resorting to a hidden-variable theory devised for resolving the Einstein-Bohr debate on the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics. The legitimacy of quantum superposition for describing the physical world is the essence of the debate. Einstein argued against the legitimacy of quantum superposition. Testing Bell’s inequality by experiment with the experimental result explained by Bell’s theorem opened the door to so-called quantum information technologies. In quantum information theory, “quantum bit” (or “qubit” for short) in a form of quantum superposition is supposed to carry quantum information. Although most physicists believe that Einstein’s vision of the physical world contradicts the experimental result of testing Bell’s inequality, actually neither the experimental result nor Bell’s theorem is relevant to Einstein’s viewpoint. In the present paper, a new principle, the general principle of measurements, is proved as a mathematical theorem. Based on this principle, the experiment for testing Bell’s inequality and so-called experimental evidence for physically realizable “qubit” are scrutinized. The findings are as follows. The experimental result of testing Bell’s inequality and the measurement outcomes of experiments involving “qubit” are all erroneously explained. Bell’s inequality failed to capture the essence of the Einstein-Bohr debate, and Bell’s theorem is irrelevant to Einstein’s vision of the physical world. Quantum mechanics can be completed by using disjunction (“or”) as the logical relation between the orthonormal vectors that span an arbitrarily given Hilbert space without resorting to any hidden-variable theory, while the mathematical setting will remain essentially unchanged. All kinds of “qubit” violate the general principle of measurements and can only describe imaginary objects that do not exist in the physical world. The findings inevitably lead to a very regrettable conclusion: Quantum information has no physical carers and all quantum information technologies are not physically realizable.
Bell’s inequality is derived by resorting to a hidden-variable theory devised for resolving the Einstein-Bohr debate on the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics. The legitimacy of quantum superposition for describing the physical world is the essence of the debate. Einstein argued against the legitimacy of quantum superposition. Testing Bell’s inequality by experiments with the experimental result explained by Bell’s theorem opened the door to so-called quantum information technologies. In quantum information theory, “quantum bit” (or “qubit” for short) in a form of quantum superposition is supposed to carry quantum information. In the present paper, a new principle, the general principle of measurements, has been proved as a mathematical theorem. Based on this principle, the experiment for testing Bell’s inequality and so-called experimental evidence for physically realizable “qubit” have been scrutinized. The findings are as follows. Although most physicists believe that Einstein’s vision of the physical world contradicts the experimental result of testing Bell’s inequality, neither the experimental result nor Bell’s theorem is relevant to Einstein’s viewpoint, because Bell’s inequality failed to capture the essence of the Einstein-Bohr debate. The experimental result and the measurement outcomes of various experiments involving “qubit” are all erroneously explained. Quantum mechanics can be completed by using disjunction (“or”) as the logical relation between the orthonormal vectors that span an arbitrarily given Hilbert space without resorting to any hidden-variable theory, while the mathematical setting will remain essentially unchanged. All kinds of “qubit” violate the general principle of measurements and can only describe imaginary objects that do not exist in the real world. A very regrettable conclusion from the above findings is inevitable: All quantum information technologies are not physically realizable, because quantum information has no physical carriers.
Bell’s inequality is derived by resorting to a hidden-variable theory devised for resolving the Einstein-Bohr debate on the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics. The legitimacy of quantum superposition for describing the physical world is the essence of the debate. Einstein argued against the legitimacy of quantum superposition. Testing Bell’s inequality by experiments with the experimental results explained by Bell’s theorem opened the door to so-called quantum information technologies. In quantum information theory, “quantum bit” (or “qubit” for short) in a form of quantum superposition is supposed to represent quantum information. In the present paper, a new principle, the general principle of measurements, is introduced and proved as a mathematical theorem. Based on this principle, the experiments for testing Bell’s inequality and so-called experimental evidence for physically realizable “qubit” are scrutinized. The findings are as follows. Although most physicists believe that Einstein’s vision of the physical world contradicts the experimental results of testing Bell’s inequality, actually Einstein’s viewpoint is irrelevant to Bell’s theorem. Bell’s inequality failed to capture the essence of the Einstein-Bohr debate. The experimental results of testing Bell’s inequality and the measurement outcomes of various experiments involving “qubit” are all erroneously explained. Without involving hidden variables, quantum mechanics can be completed based on the general principle of measurements by using disjunction (“or”) as the logical relation between the orthonormal vectors that span an arbitrarily given Hilbert space, and the mathematical setting can remain essentially unchanged. All kinds of “qubit” violate the general principle of measurements and can only describe imaginary objects that do not exist in the real world. A very regrettable conclusion from the above findings is inevitable: Quantum information has no physical carriers, and all quantum information technologies are not physically realizable.
Bell’s inequality is derived by resorting to a hidden-variable theory devised for resolving the Einstein-Bohr debate on the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics. The legitimacy of quantum superposition for describing the physical world is the essence of the debate. Einstein argued against the legitimacy of quantum superposition. Testing Bell’s inequality by experiments with the experimental results explained by Bell’s theorem opened the door to so-called quantum information technologies. In quantum information theory, “quantum bit” (or “qubit” for short) in a form of quantum superposition is supposed to represent quantum information. In the present paper, a new principle, the general principle of measurements, is introduced and proved as a mathematical theorem. Based on this principle, the experiments for testing Bell’s inequality and so-called experimental evidence for physically realizable “qubit” are scrutinized. The findings are as follows. Although most physicists believe that Einstein’s vision of the physical world contradicts the experimental results of testing Bell’s inequality, actually Einstein’s viewpoint is irrelevant to Bell’s theorem. Bell’s inequality failed to capture the essence of the Einstein-Bohr debate. The experimental results of testing Bell’s inequality and the measurement outcomes of various experiments involving “qubit” are all erroneously explained. Without involving hidden variables, quantum mechanics can be completed based on the general principle of measurements by using disjunction (“or”) as the logical relation between the orthonormal vectors that span an arbitrarily given Hilbert space, and the mathematical setting can remain essentially unchanged. All kinds of “qubit” violate the general principle of measurements and can only describe imaginary objects that do not exist in the real world. A very regrettable conclusion from the above findings is inevitable: Quantum information has no physical carriers, and all quantum information technologies are not physically realizable.
Lying at the heart of quantum mechanics, the notion of quantum superposition causes enormous difficulty in understanding the problem of quantum measurement, which concerns the Einstein-Bohr debate on the conceptual foundations of the quantum theory. According to Bell’s theorem, Einstein’s viewpoint in his debate with Bohr seems to be wrong. In the present paper, a new principle (referred to as the general principle of measurements) is introduced and proved as a mathematical theorem. Based on this principle, various forms of quantum superposition (including quantum entanglement) and the corresponding experiments are scrutinized. The main findings are as follows. (a) Einstein’s viewpoint is correct and Bell’s theorem is problematic. (b) Measurement outcomes of any actual experiment with individual microscopic objects described in a form of quantum superposition, in particular, the experimental results of testing Bell inequalities, are all erroneously explained. (c) Bell inequalities failed to capture the essence of the Einstein-Bohr debate, i.e., whether quantum superposition is legitimate for describing individual microscopic objects. (d) All kinds of quantum superposition violate the general principle of measurements and hence are illegitimate. (e) Quantum mechanics can be completed by using disjunction (“or”) as the logical relation between the orthonormal vectors that span an arbitrarily given Hilbert space for describing a single microscopic object, and the mathematical setting will remain essentially unchanged; hidden-variable theories are irrelevant to the real world. (f) After completing quantum mechanics as above, the difficulty in understanding the problem of quantum measurement disappears naturally. Implications of the findings are also discussed.
Considered by Einstein as “the fundamental dice-game”, the quantum-mechanical description of quantum objects in the real world is controversial. According to Einstein’s understanding of the physical world, the quantum-mechanical description is incomplete, but rendering quantum mechanics complete might be possible. Derived by resorting to a hidden-variable theory, Bell inequalities attempted to render quantum mechanics complete somehow. Unfortunately, the attempts all failed. More unfortunately, the failure and the widely accepted but erroneous interpretation of the failure resulted in giving up either or both of locality and realism, the two fundamental hypotheses for scientific research, and hence opened the door to so-called quantum information technologies. Consequently, quantum information technologies all stem from “the fundamental dice-game”. Based on an important mathematical fact irrelevant to any issue about measurement instruments or accuracies of measurement outcomes, namely, precise space and time coordinates are practically unattainable by measurements, which reflects a general principle regarding the nature of measurements (henceforth principle of measurements), this paper reports the following findings: (a) Einstein’s understanding of the physical world is correct. (b) Without resorting to any hidden-variable theory, rendering quantum mechanics complete is possible while keeping the mathematical setting for quantum mechanics (i.e., Hilbert space) essentially unchanged; therefore, eligible applications of quantum mechanics, which are all irrelevant to “the fundamental dice-game”, will also remain unchanged. (c) As fictitious results in “the fundamental dice-game” based on the problematic postulate of quantum superposition in current quantum theory, quantum information technologies are all physically unrealizable. A very regrettable conclusion then follows inevitably from the above findings: An extremely huge amount of time, effort, funding, and investment in realizing physically unrealizable quantum information technologies has been wasted because of “the fundamental dice-game”, which has seriously damaged science!
In the Einstein-Bohr debate, Einstein considered quantum mechanics incomplete and disagreed with Born's probabilistic interpretation of wave-functions, which collapse abruptly once measurements are performed on the corresponding microscopic objects. Inspired by Einstein, Bell and his followers intended to complete quantum mechanics within the framework of local realism. Regrettably, the deterministic correlation between distant components of a separable system in Einstein's local-realist description of the world is mistaken for the so-called non-locality or "nonlocal-interaction" in the world described by Bell's theorem, which leads to the questionable interpretation of the experimental results obtained by testing Bell inequalities. This article introduces a new principle, the general principle of measurements, which is proved as a mathematical theorem and allows quantum mechanics to be completed within the framework of local realism while keeping the formal axiomatic definition of a general Hilbert space essentially unchanged. Using disjunction ("or") as the logical relation between orthonormal vectors spanning a given Hilbert space, the completed quantum theory precludes inexplicable collapses of wave-functions and is intuitively comprehensible, thus alleviating much difficulty in understanding quantum mechanics. Among various world views, Einstein's local-realist world view is correct.