Aims This study will investigate the integration of quantum computing and blockchain technology of EHR systems, evaluating the potential and major vulnerabilities of the developed blockchain platforms. In addition, through this evaluation, in this paper, transaction capabilities, energy consumption, and quantum susceptibilities of Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple are being evaluated. Further, research gaps on quantum implications and transition strategies to quantum-resistant systems for achieving secure, efficient, and patient-centric Healthcare 4.0 are identified. Background The embedding of quantum computing and blockchain technology within EHR systems represents the next wave of scientific development within the healthcare sector. However, at the same time, emerging quantum capabilities have raised serious vulnerabilities for major blockchain platforms. If Ethereum and Bitcoin display quantum threats regarding their high transaction capacities, then Ripple, with its high rate of transactions, truly presents a high stake in terms of quantum threats. Further, the energy consumption discrepancies pose some environmental impacts and point to the need for research on energy-efficient quantum-resistant systems. Objective This research investigates the potential and vulnerabilities of major blockchain platforms with electronic health record systems in a new quantum computing environment. In that context, this work evaluates transaction capacities, quantum threats, and energy use for platforms like Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple. Additionally, it seeks to identify research gaps and propose transition strategies toward a quantum-resistant system in support of the development of a secure and efficient Healthcare 4.0. Methods This work focused on assessing the potential and vulnerabilities of blockchain platforms under quantum computing threats in EHR systems. We analyzed transaction processing rates, quantum susceptibilities, and energy consumption metrics for the Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple platforms. A complete literature review is presented with respect to realistic quantum implications and practical transition strategies toward quantum-resistant systems oriented to support the development of secure and efficient Healthcare 4.0. Results The evaluations revealed that Ethereum processed 30 transactions per second and Bitcoin processed 7, with each having low quantum vulnerability. Ripple, at 1500 transactions per second, also had significant quantum vulnerabilities. In addition to energy use, Bitcoin consumes 707 kWh per single transaction compared with Ripple's 0.0078 kWh. Other gaps in research existed in real-world quantum consequences and considerations for transitioning to quantum-resistant systems, all of which are vital for making Healthcare 4.0 secure and efficient. Conclusion This has underscored the transformative potential as well as the weaknesses involved in integrating quantum computing and blockchain technologies into EHR. However, Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple vary in their transaction rates; all three face a similar quantum threat while having large differences in energy consumption. These are problems that would call for more research into quantum-resistant systems and strategic implementation. Actualization of a secure, efficient, and patient-centered Healthcare 4.0 will call for proactive research collaboration and strategic efforts towards ensuring technological and environmental sustainability.
Aims This study will investigate the integration of quantum computing and blockchain technology of EHR systems, evaluating the potential and major vulnerabilities of the developed blockchain platforms. In addition, through this evaluation, in this paper, transaction capabilities, energy consumption, and quantum susceptibilities of Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple are being evaluated. Further, research gaps on quantum implications and transition strategies to quantum-resistant systems for achieving secure, efficient, and patient-centric Healthcare 4.0 are identified. Background The embedding of quantum computing and blockchain technology within EHR systems represents the next wave of scientific development within the healthcare sector. However, at the same time, emerging quantum capabilities have raised serious vulnerabilities for major blockchain platforms. If Ethereum and Bitcoin display quantum threats regarding their high transaction capacities, then Ripple, with its high rate of transactions, truly presents a high stake in terms of quantum threats. Further, the energy consumption discrepancies pose some environmental impacts and point to the need for research on energy-efficient quantum-resistant systems. Objective This research investigates the potential and vulnerabilities of major blockchain platforms with electronic health record systems in a new quantum computing environment. In that context, this work evaluates transaction capacities, quantum threats, and energy use for platforms like Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple. Additionally, it seeks to identify research gaps and propose transition strategies toward a quantum-resistant system in support of the development of a secure and efficient Healthcare 4.0. Methods This work focused on assessing the potential and vulnerabilities of blockchain platforms under quantum computing threats in EHR systems. We analyzed transaction processing rates, quantum susceptibilities, and energy consumption metrics for the Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple platforms. A complete literature review is presented with respect to realistic quantum implications and practical transition strategies toward quantum-resistant systems oriented to support the development of secure and efficient Healthcare 4.0. Results The evaluations revealed that Ethereum processed 30 transactions per second and Bitcoin processed 7, with each having low quantum vulnerability. Ripple, at 1500 transactions per second, also had significant quantum vulnerabilities. In addition to energy use, Bitcoin consumes 707 kWh per single transaction compared with Ripple's 0.0078 kWh. Other gaps in research existed in real-world quantum consequences and considerations for transitioning to quantum-resistant systems, all of which are vital for making Healthcare 4.0 secure and efficient. Conclusion This has underscored the transformative potential as well as the weaknesses involved in integrating quantum computing and blockchain technologies into EHR. However, Ethereum, Bitcoin, and Ripple vary in their transaction rates; all three face a similar quantum threat while having large differences in energy consumption. These are problems that would call for more research into quantum-resistant systems and strategic implementation. Actualization of a secure, efficient, and patient-centered Healthcare 4.0 will call for proactive research collaboration and strategic efforts towards ensuring technological and environmental sustainability.
The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses a significant threat to current cryptographic standards, particularly those securing electronic health records (EHRs) in healthcare systems.Traditional encryption methods such as RSA, ECC, and AES, while robust against classical attacks, are vulnerable to quantum algorithms like Shor's and Grover's, which can efficiently break cryptographic keys and compromise patient data integrity.As healthcare systems become increasingly interconnected through the Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud-based infrastructures, the need for quantum-resistant security mechanisms becomes paramount.Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) emerges as a viable solution to future-proof EHR security by employing lattice-based, hash-based, code-based, and multivariate polynomial cryptographic techniques that remain resistant to quantum attacks.This paper explores the implications of quantum computing on healthcare cybersecurity, emphasizing the vulnerabilities of existing encryption protocols and the necessity of transitioning toward PQC frameworks.Furthermore, we examine the integration of PQC within healthcare infrastructures, focusing on key exchange mechanisms, digital signatures, and end-to-end encryption for secure EHR transactions.Additionally, the study highlights regulatory and compliance considerations, including the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) PQC standardization efforts and the role of Zero Trust security models in mitigating quantum-era cyber risks.Case studies illustrate successful implementations of PQC in healthcare networks, demonstrating its feasibility and effectiveness in safeguarding sensitive medical information.By adopting quantum-resistant cryptographic standards, healthcare institutions can proactively defend against emerging cyber threats, ensuring data confidentiality, integrity, and long-term resilience in the face of quantum computing advancements.
The rapid digitalisation of healthcare has accelerated the adoption of telemedicine, Electronic Health Records (EHRs), and the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), transforming healthcare delivery into a highly interconnected and patient-centric ecosystem. In response to growing concerns about data security, privacy, and interoperability, blockchain technology has emerged as a promising solution for its decentralization, immutability, auditability, and secure access control. However, many existing blockchain infrastructures rely on classical cryptographic primitives, including RSA- or elliptic-curve-based public-key mechanisms and cryptographic hash functions such as SHA-256, whose relevant security properties may be affected by sufficiently powerful quantum attacks. This review investigates the convergence of blockchain and quantum technologies to address emerging security threats in e-health systems. A structured literature review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines using the IEEE Xplore, PubMed, ACM Digital Library, Google Scholar, and Crossref databases, covering studies published between January 2018 and June 2025. Following a systematic screening and eligibility-verification process, 57 relevant studies were selected and analyzed. The review evaluates quantum-resilient security mechanisms, including Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG), and NIST-standardized Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) algorithms specified in FIPS 203, FIPS 204, and FIPS 205. Based on the identified research gaps in the state of the art, this study also proposes a novel four-layer Quantum-Blockchain Security Architecture (QBSA) designed for secure healthcare environments. The analysis further reveals significant challenges associated with lightweight PQC deployment for IoMT devices, interoperability standardization, quantum hardware limitations, and regulatory compliance in cross-institutional healthcare systems. The findings highlight the necessity of integrating quantum-resilient cryptographic frameworks with blockchain infrastructures to support the development of secure, scalable, and patient-centric next-generation e-health ecosystems.
Quantum computers pose a significant threat to blockchain technology’s security, which heavily relies on public-key cryptography and hash functions. The cryptographic algorithms used in blockchains, based on large odd prime numbers and discrete logarithms, can be easily compromised by quantum computing algorithms like Shor’s algorithm and its future qubit variations. This survey paper comprehensively examines the impact of quantum computers on blockchain security and explores potential mitigation strategies. The survey focuses on the quantum security of blockchain’s fundamental building blocks, including digital signatures, hash functions, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. We analyze the vulnerabilities introduced by quantum computers and discuss potential countermeasures and enhancements to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of blockchain systems. Furthermore, we investigate the quantum attack surface of blockchains, identifying potential avenues for exploiting quantum computing to strengthen existing attacks. We emphasize the need for developing quantum-resistant defenses and explore solutions for mitigating the threat of quantum computers to blockchains, including the adoption of quantum and post-quantum blockchain architectures. The paper also discusses the limitations of current efforts, such as the computational overhead of post-quantum algorithms and the practical challenges in real-world deployment, illustrated through case studies of Bitcoin and Ethereum. Future research directions include developing scalable quantum-resistant blockchain protocols, optimizing cryptographic implementations for embedded devices, and establishing standardized security frameworks to mitigate emerging quantum attacks.
Cryptocurrencies have gained significant importance in the financial market, and the emergence of quantum computers has raised concerns about their impact on cryptocurrency systems.This article aims to analyze these impacts, focusing primarily on the effects on the mining process, threats to blockchain security, and potential solutions to mitigate these effects.Through an extensive review of articles and theoretical research, this article uncovers significant potential effects on cryptocurrency systems resulting from quantum computing.The article highlights that the advent of quantum computing could lead to a drastic acceleration of the mining process, operating in quadratic time.Additionally, it raises concerns about the security vulnerabilities that quantum attacks pose to blockchain systems, as Shor's algorithm poses a considerable threat to the cryptographic mechanisms upon which cryptocurrencies rely.Grover's algorithm, on the other hand, has the potential to significantly reduce the time and energy consumption involved in mining.Although new cryptographic methods, such as Post-Quantum Cryptography, have been proposed to withstand quantum attacks, their effectiveness can only be theoretically evaluated until practical quantum computers become available.At present, the impact of quantum computing on the real world remains limited due to the nascent state of quantum technology.However, with IBM's plan to develop a 100,000-qubit system by 2033, the potential threats to cryptocurrency systems cannot be disregarded.
Quantum computers pose a significant threat to blockchain technology's security, which heavily relies on public-key cryptography and hash functions. The cryptographic algorithms used in blockchains, based on large odd prime numbers and discrete logarithms, can be easily compromised by quantum computing algorithms like Shor's algorithm and its future qubit variations. This survey paper comprehensively examines the impact of quantum computers on blockchain security and explores potential mitigation strategies. We begin by surveying the existing literature on blockchains and quantum computing, providing insights into the current state of research. We then present an overview of blockchain, highlighting its key components and functionalities. We delve into the preliminaries and key definitions of quantum computing, establishing a foundation for understanding the implications on blockchain security. The application of blockchains in cybersecurity is explored, considering their strengths and vulnerabilities in light of evolving quantum computing capabilities. The survey focuses on the quantum security of blockchain's fundamental building blocks, including digital signatures, hash functions, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. We analyze the vulnerabilities introduced by quantum computers and discuss potential countermeasures and enhancements to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of blockchain systems. Furthermore, we investigate the quantum attack surface of blockchains, identifying potential avenues for exploiting quantum computing to strengthen existing attacks. We emphasize the need for developing quantum-resistant defenses and explore solutions for mitigating the threat of quantum computers to blockchains, including the adoption of quantum and post-quantum blockchain architectures. By examining vulnerabilities and discussing mitigation strategies, we aim to guide researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in developing robust and secure blockchain systems capable of withstanding advancements in quantum computing technology.
Quantum computers pose a significant threat to blockchain technology’s security, which heavily relies on public-key cryptography and hash functions. The cryptographic algorithms used in blockchains, based on large odd prime numbers and discrete logarithms, can be easily compromised by quantum computing algorithms like Shor’s algorithm and its future qubit variations. This survey paper comprehensively examines the impact of quantum computers on blockchain security and explores potential mitigation strategies. We begin by surveying the existing literature on blockchains and quantum computing, providing insights into the current state of research. We then present an overview of blockchain, highlighting its key components and functionalities. We delve into the preliminaries and key definitions of quantum computing, establishing a foundation for understanding the implications on blockchain security. The application of blockchains in cybersecurity is explored, considering their strengths and vulnerabilities in light of evolving quantum computing capabilities. The survey focuses on the quantum security of blockchain’s fundamental building blocks, including digital signatures, hash functions, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. We analyze the vulnerabilities introduced by quantum computers and discuss potential countermeasures and enhancements to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of blockchain systems. Furthermore, we investigate the quantum attack surface of blockchains, identifying potential avenues for exploiting quantum computing to strengthen existing attacks. We emphasize the need for developing quantum-resistant defenses and explore solutions for mitigating the threat of quantum computers to blockchains, including the adoption of quantum and post-quantum blockchain architectures. By examining vulnerabilities and discussing mitigation strategies, we aim to guide researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in developing robust and secure blockchain systems capable of withstanding advancements in quantum computing technology.