Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

IEEE International Conference on Information Systems and Computer Aided Education (ICISCAE)

Minimum Path Cost Multi-path Routing Algorithm with No Intersecting Links in Quantum Key Distribution Networks

Minghui Miao, Shuo Fang, Weijie Wu, Xiaotong Yuan, Lin Bi

Published Sep 23, 2023• 3 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Quantum key distribution (QKD) provides information-theoretic security based on quantum mechanics, and as quantum key distribution becomes increasingly practical, questions of how to employ it effectively over largescale networks and large distances becomes increasingly important. In this work, we investigate the B92 entanglement based QKD protocol and a five-layer QKD network architecture consisting of trusted relay nodes. Previous research seldom focused on the ground routing mechanism of QKD networks in detail. Since no intersecting links are beneficial to reducing the key consumption rate and improving link security, combined with the core idea of reducing the number of link relay hops, we propose a minimum path cost multi-path routing algorithm for no intersecting links in quantum key distribution networks. By analyzing the security of the link, we effectively reduce the number of relay nodes and the number of relay links that pass through and give priority to the routing scheme with the minimum number of hops in the number of relay hops, which avoids the congestion and waste caused by the existence of interleaved multi-path in traditional multi-path routing. Meanwhile, the scheme effectively improves the quality of service index, avoids the generation and consumption of redundant keys, and reduces the waste of quantum key resources.

DOI
10.1109/iciscae59047.2023.10393549

Related papers

Research on Multi-path Quantum Key Distribution Scheme without Public Nodes Based on Trust Relaying

Jingran Wang, Weijia Xue, Wang Congli +1 more

ABSTRACT. Quantum key distribution (QKD) network develops rapidly in recent years. In order to improve the efficiency and security of quantum key distribution, this paper analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of single-path and multi-path quantum key distribution and proposes a multi-path quantum key distribution scheme. This scheme includes two aspects which are path equalization priority strategy and the No-public nodes strategy. The priority of the chosen path is based on the path bandwidth utilization, the number of routing hops and quantum keys stored in the trusted nodes. The no-public nodes strategy selects multiple key distribution paths without public nodes. The scheme can reduce the risk of path blocking and the consumption of quantum keys, improve the efficiency and security of QKD. Finally, this scheme is analyzed and verified.

International Conference on Information Technology and Computer Communications (ITCC)•Jun 15, 2023•5 citations

Quantum key distribution network: Optimal secret-key-aware routing method for trust relaying

Chao Yang, Hongqi Zhang, SU Jin-hai

Since the QKD network can overcome the distance limitation and expand the point-to-point QKD system to a multi-user key distribution system, some testing QKD networks have been built. However, all of this previous research seldom focused on the routing mechanism of QKD network in detail. Therefore, this paper focuses on the routing issue in trust relaying QKD network, builds a model of the trust relaying QKD network and proposes a secret-key-aware routing method. In our method, a dynamic model for the residual local key is proposed to forecast the residual local key quantity of each QKD link more accurately, and the cost of QKD link and relaying path are defined by multiple affecting factors, e.g. the generation, consumption rate and the local key depletion index. The proposed method is implemented and evaluated in a simulation environment. The simulation results show that our routing method can increase the success rate of key exchange, make all the QKD links participate key exchange with almost equal opportunity to achieve load balance, and trade off the local key generation and consumption of each QKD link. Therefore, our proposed method can contribute to effectively improve the holistic performance of the trust relaying QKD network.

China Communications•Feb 1, 2018•31 citations

A Load Balancing Routing Algorithm for Quantum Key Distribution Networks

Xinghai Guo, Yuchen Zhou, Sijiang Xie +1 more

With the development of quantum computing and computer science, the risk of traditional cryptographic algorithms being cracked is increasing. Therefore, quantum key distribution (QKD) technology based on quantum physical properties has been developed to ensure the security of information communication. Large-scale QKD networks can be built using trusted relay technology, but the hops encryption and decryption process of trusted relay will consume extra keys, which makes it particularly important to choose a reasonable path to reduce the consumption of extra keys during key distribution. The existing routing algorithms mainly focus on the number of remaining keys and hops, but ignore the congestion information of the network, resulting in a high key exchange failure rate and an increase in key consumption. In view of this background, we propose a load balancing routing (LBR) algorithm, which can realize congestion control in QKD network by dynamically detecting link state with SDN controller. Simulation results show that LBR improves key request success rate by more than 10% and key utilization efficiency by about 5% compared with existing methods.

International Conference on Intelligent Systems, Communications and Computer Networks (ISCCN)•Feb 21, 2025•3 citations

A routing method designed for a Quantum Key Distribution network

Yoshimichi Tanizawa, Ririka Takahashi, A. R. Dixon

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a technique for sharing encryption keys between two adjacent nodes in an unconditionally secure manner based on quantum theory. From the viewpoint of network system research, QKD is considered to be a building block for providing secure link communication in network systems. Although the communication distance is subject to a limitation attributable to the QKD fundamentals, recent research and some QKD field trials of “key relaying” over a “QKD network” are overcoming this limitation. It also enables each node on the QKD network to exchange encryption keys with arbitrary nodes on the QKD network. However, the previous research didn't address a routing method on the QKD network in detail. This paper focuses on the routing issues on the QKD network, clarifies the requirements of the routing protocol, and proposes a routing solution designed for the key relaying on the QKD network. The proposed routing solution consists of 4 components: (1) a node interface architecture addressing both encrypted and unencrypted traffics, (2) a path selection algorithm based on the number of keys, (3) an IP address assignment scheme connecting unencrypted interfaces and encrypted interfaces, and (4) a routing protocol deployment method consuming no extra keys. The proposed routing solution allows the QKD network to select a suitable key relaying path according to the QKD system condition and to reduce the extra key consumption, which optimizes the key utilization on the QKD network. The proposed routing solution was implemented with a network emulating QKD technology and evaluated. The evaluation result shows that the proposed routing solution could select a path that stores enough keys, which is suitable for a QKD network. Additional impact analysis reveals that the proposed routing solution could save up to 52% of key consumption depending on the QKD key sharing speed and the routing protocol configuration.

International Conference on Ubiquitous and Future Networks•Jul 1, 2016•45 citations

Multi-Criteria Routing for Cryptographic Key Exchange in QKD Networks: Survey, Taxonomy, and a Conceptual Optimization Framework

Ivan Cvitic, Dragan Perakovic, Armando Nolasco Pinto

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) networks enable unconditionally secure key exchange using quantum mechanical principles. However, routing cryptographic keys across multi-hop quantum networks introduces challenges unique to quantum communication. This survey analyzes and classifies 26 routing strategies proposed between 2013 and 2024 for terrestrial, satellite, and hybrid QKD infrastructures. Dynamic, key-aware routing algorithms have been shown to reduce service rejection rates by 25-40% compared to static shortest-path methods by incorporating real-time key pool availability and link error rates. Multi-path strategies improve resilience against trusted-node compromise by distributing keys across disjoint routes, albeit with an increase in key consumption of 30-60%. SDN-based orchestration frameworks emerge as essential enablers of flexible, QoS-aware routing for hybrid networks integrating terrestrial fibers and intermittent satellite links. Critical research directions include reducing dependence on trusted nodes through quantum repeaters or post-quantum cryptography, developing standardized key management interfaces for interoperability, and adopting AI-driven predictive routing for adapting to fluctuating network states. This comprehensive synthesis of routing algorithms, performance trade-offs, and unresolved issues offers practical guidance for engineering secure, adaptable, and large-scale QKD networks capable of meeting real-world deployment demands.

quant-pharXiv:2511.15465•Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering•Nov 20, 2025•0 citations

A Multi-Path QKD Algorithm with Multiple Segments

Liu Cheng, Xuanxuan Che, Jianshe Xie +1 more

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) provides unconditional peer-to-peer security based on the principles of quantum physics. By utilizing relay nodes, the security of QKD can be extended over longer distances. However, the introduction of relay nodes brings both security and communication success rates issues. To tackle those issues we propose an enhanced multi-path scheme. The key features of our proposal are as follows: 1. By taking the reliability of relay nodes as one of the algorithm inputs,making the scheme more suitable for partially trusted QKD (PTQKD) networks. 2. By using Multi-Segment Multi-Path approach increases the difficulty for attackers to obtain complete key information and improves the security of PTQKD. 3. The adaptive routing algorithm generates a sufficient number of diverse paths based on node contribution rate, key freshness, and reliability. We conducted a theoretical analysis of the algorithm,and simulation results on PTQKD demonstrate that our method outperforms traditional QKD methods in terms of security and transmission success rate. This advancement has the potential to enhance the adoption of QKD networks.

Journal of Cyber Security and Mobility•Feb 12, 2024•6 citations
Quantum key distribution (QKD) provides information-theoretic security based on quantum mechanics, and as quantum key distribution becomes increasingly practical, questions of how to employ it effectively over largescale networks and large distances becomes increasingly important. In this work, we investigate the B92 entanglement based QKD protocol and a five-layer QKD network architecture consisting of trusted relay nodes. Previous research seldom focused on the ground routing mechanism of QKD networks in detail. Since no intersecting links are beneficial to reducing the key consumption rate and improving link security, combined with the core idea of reducing the number of link relay hops, we propose a minimum path cost multi-path routing algorithm for no intersecting links in quantum key distribution networks. By analyzing the security of the link, we effectively reduce the number of relay nodes and the number of relay links that pass through and give priority to the routing scheme with the minimum number of hops in the number of relay hops, which avoids the congestion and waste caused by the existence of interleaved multi-path in traditional multi-path routing. Meanwhile, the scheme effectively improves the quality of service index, avoids the generation and consumption of redundant keys, and reduces the waste of quantum key resources.
ABSTRACT. Quantum key distribution (QKD) network develops rapidly in recent years. In order to improve the efficiency and security of quantum key distribution, this paper analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of single-path and multi-path quantum key distribution and proposes a multi-path quantum key distribution scheme. This scheme includes two aspects which are path equalization priority strategy and the No-public nodes strategy. The priority of the chosen path is based on the path bandwidth utilization, the number of routing hops and quantum keys stored in the trusted nodes. The no-public nodes strategy selects multiple key distribution paths without public nodes. The scheme can reduce the risk of path blocking and the consumption of quantum keys, improve the efficiency and security of QKD. Finally, this scheme is analyzed and verified.
Since the QKD network can overcome the distance limitation and expand the point-to-point QKD system to a multi-user key distribution system, some testing QKD networks have been built. However, all of this previous research seldom focused on the routing mechanism of QKD network in detail. Therefore, this paper focuses on the routing issue in trust relaying QKD network, builds a model of the trust relaying QKD network and proposes a secret-key-aware routing method. In our method, a dynamic model for the residual local key is proposed to forecast the residual local key quantity of each QKD link more accurately, and the cost of QKD link and relaying path are defined by multiple affecting factors, e.g. the generation, consumption rate and the local key depletion index. The proposed method is implemented and evaluated in a simulation environment. The simulation results show that our routing method can increase the success rate of key exchange, make all the QKD links participate key exchange with almost equal opportunity to achieve load balance, and trade off the local key generation and consumption of each QKD link. Therefore, our proposed method can contribute to effectively improve the holistic performance of the trust relaying QKD network.
With the development of quantum computing and computer science, the risk of traditional cryptographic algorithms being cracked is increasing. Therefore, quantum key distribution (QKD) technology based on quantum physical properties has been developed to ensure the security of information communication. Large-scale QKD networks can be built using trusted relay technology, but the hops encryption and decryption process of trusted relay will consume extra keys, which makes it particularly important to choose a reasonable path to reduce the consumption of extra keys during key distribution. The existing routing algorithms mainly focus on the number of remaining keys and hops, but ignore the congestion information of the network, resulting in a high key exchange failure rate and an increase in key consumption. In view of this background, we propose a load balancing routing (LBR) algorithm, which can realize congestion control in QKD network by dynamically detecting link state with SDN controller. Simulation results show that LBR improves key request success rate by more than 10% and key utilization efficiency by about 5% compared with existing methods.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a technique for sharing encryption keys between two adjacent nodes in an unconditionally secure manner based on quantum theory. From the viewpoint of network system research, QKD is considered to be a building block for providing secure link communication in network systems. Although the communication distance is subject to a limitation attributable to the QKD fundamentals, recent research and some QKD field trials of “key relaying” over a “QKD network” are overcoming this limitation. It also enables each node on the QKD network to exchange encryption keys with arbitrary nodes on the QKD network. However, the previous research didn't address a routing method on the QKD network in detail. This paper focuses on the routing issues on the QKD network, clarifies the requirements of the routing protocol, and proposes a routing solution designed for the key relaying on the QKD network. The proposed routing solution consists of 4 components: (1) a node interface architecture addressing both encrypted and unencrypted traffics, (2) a path selection algorithm based on the number of keys, (3) an IP address assignment scheme connecting unencrypted interfaces and encrypted interfaces, and (4) a routing protocol deployment method consuming no extra keys. The proposed routing solution allows the QKD network to select a suitable key relaying path according to the QKD system condition and to reduce the extra key consumption, which optimizes the key utilization on the QKD network. The proposed routing solution was implemented with a network emulating QKD technology and evaluated. The evaluation result shows that the proposed routing solution could select a path that stores enough keys, which is suitable for a QKD network. Additional impact analysis reveals that the proposed routing solution could save up to 52% of key consumption depending on the QKD key sharing speed and the routing protocol configuration.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) networks enable unconditionally secure key exchange using quantum mechanical principles. However, routing cryptographic keys across multi-hop quantum networks introduces challenges unique to quantum communication. This survey analyzes and classifies 26 routing strategies proposed between 2013 and 2024 for terrestrial, satellite, and hybrid QKD infrastructures. Dynamic, key-aware routing algorithms have been shown to reduce service rejection rates by 25-40% compared to static shortest-path methods by incorporating real-time key pool availability and link error rates. Multi-path strategies improve resilience against trusted-node compromise by distributing keys across disjoint routes, albeit with an increase in key consumption of 30-60%. SDN-based orchestration frameworks emerge as essential enablers of flexible, QoS-aware routing for hybrid networks integrating terrestrial fibers and intermittent satellite links. Critical research directions include reducing dependence on trusted nodes through quantum repeaters or post-quantum cryptography, developing standardized key management interfaces for interoperability, and adopting AI-driven predictive routing for adapting to fluctuating network states. This comprehensive synthesis of routing algorithms, performance trade-offs, and unresolved issues offers practical guidance for engineering secure, adaptable, and large-scale QKD networks capable of meeting real-world deployment demands.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) provides unconditional peer-to-peer security based on the principles of quantum physics. By utilizing relay nodes, the security of QKD can be extended over longer distances. However, the introduction of relay nodes brings both security and communication success rates issues. To tackle those issues we propose an enhanced multi-path scheme. The key features of our proposal are as follows: 1. By taking the reliability of relay nodes as one of the algorithm inputs,making the scheme more suitable for partially trusted QKD (PTQKD) networks. 2. By using Multi-Segment Multi-Path approach increases the difficulty for attackers to obtain complete key information and improves the security of PTQKD. 3. The adaptive routing algorithm generates a sufficient number of diverse paths based on node contribution rate, key freshness, and reliability. We conducted a theoretical analysis of the algorithm,and simulation results on PTQKD demonstrate that our method outperforms traditional QKD methods in terms of security and transmission success rate. This advancement has the potential to enhance the adoption of QKD networks.