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Interpreting the Schrödinger Equation

Published Apr 13, 2006• 0 citations
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Abstract

Abstract In stark contrast to classical Newtonian mechanics, the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics associates the Schrödinger wavefunction, not in a determ- inistic way with definite predictions about a specific, individual experimental result, but only in a probabilistic manner, with |ψ(x, t )|2 acting as a probability density, in this case, for position measurements. Before analyzing this approach in more detail, we will find it profitable to briefly review some of the basic concepts of discrete and

DOI
10.1093/oso/9780198530978.003.0004

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•Jan 1, 2004•0 citations
Abstract In stark contrast to classical Newtonian mechanics, the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics associates the Schrödinger wavefunction, not in a determ- inistic way with definite predictions about a specific, individual experimental result, but only in a probabilistic manner, with |ψ(x, t )|2 acting as a probability density, in this case, for position measurements. Before analyzing this approach in more detail, we will find it profitable to briefly review some of the basic concepts of discrete and
Quantum mechanics has been enormously successful in explaining the behavior of microsystems such as molecules, atoms, and nuclei. We have seen that quantum mechanics describes a quantum system by the wave function ψ, which is the solution of the Schro¨dinger equation. The wave function determines the probability amplitudes (whose modulus squared gives the probability) for all possible outcomes of a measurement corresponding to an observable on the system. In general, the wave function does not uniquely predict the result of a measurement; it only provides a probability distribution for all possible results of the measurement on a quantum system. Only if the system happens to be in an eigenstate corresponding to the observable being measured, is the result of a measurement of this observable completely predictable. On the other hand, the results of measurements corresponding to a conjugate or non-commuting observable, on the same system in the same state, are indeterminate. Quantum mechanical description of physical systems raises profound questions: How are the wave function and the probabilities for different outcomes of a measurement to be interpreted? Does the wave function represent a single system or an ensemble of systems? Does the physical system actually have the attribute corresponding to the measurement in question or does the measurement itself create the attribute? These questions led to different interpretations of quantum mechanics, which were vigorously debated during the years of its discovery as also in the following decades. The new idea of indeterminacy was especially difficult to reconcile with the long-held view that a physical theory should aim at predicting accurately, and without ambiguity, the result of any measurement on any system, big or small. These debates not only gave us a deeper understanding of quantum mechanics but also changed profoundly the way we view the micro-world.
Assuming a background in basic classical physics, multivariable calculus, and differential equations, A Concise Introduction to Quantum Mechanics provides a self-contained presentation of the mathematics and physics of quantum mechanics. The relevant aspects of classical mechanics and electrodynamics are reviewed, and the basic concepts of wave-particle duality are developed as a logical outgrowth of experiments involving blackbody radiation, the photoelectric effect, and electron diffraction. The Copenhagen interpretation of the wave function and its relation to the particle probability density is presented in conjunction with Fourier analysis and its generalization to function spaces. These concepts are combined to analyze the system consisting of a particle confined to a box, developing the probabilistic interpretation of observations and their associated expectation values. The Schrödinger equation is then derived by using these results and demanding both Galilean invariance of the probability density and Newtonian energy-momentum relations. The general properties of the Schrödinger equation and its solutions are analyzed, and the theory of observables is developed along with the associated Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Basic applications of wave mechanics are made to free wave packet spreading, barrier penetration, the simple harmonic oscillator, the Hydrogen atom, and an electric charge in a uniform magnetic field. In addition, Dirac notation, elements of Hilbert space theory, operator techniques, and matrix algebra are presented and used to analyze coherent states, the linear potential, two state oscillations, and electron diffraction. Applications are made to photon and electron spin and the addition of angular momentum, and direct product multiparticle states are used to formulate both the Pauli exclusion principle and quantum decoherence. The book concludes with an introduction to the rotation group and the general properties of angular momentum.
Schrödinger hoped that his wave mechanics would help to re-establish some sense of ‘visualizability’ of the physics going on inside the atom. In searching for a suitable interpretation of the wavefunction, he focused on the density of electrical charge, which he associated with the wavefunction ψ‎ multiplied by its complex conjugate. Hidden in his words is the interpretation that would eventually come to dominate our understanding of the wavefunction. Max Born had no hesitation in concluding that the only way to reconcile wave mechanics with the particle description is to interpret the modulus-square of the wavefunction as a probability density. It was Wolfgang Pauli who proposed to interpret this not only as a transition probability or as the probability for the system to be in a specific state, as Born had done, but as the probability of ‘finding’ the electron at a specific position in its orbit inside an atom.
It is argued (Part A) that quantum mechanics can be derived as a principle-based dynamical framework, the basic equation of which is an alternative form of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Schrodinger's equation obtains as a result of linearising that equation, and so-called wave functions can be given no straightforward physical interpretation. It is suggested, partly in relation to a theorem by Gromov, that a finite action quantum would make it practically inevitable, for purposes of prediction, to resort to a probabilistic formulation. The structure of the space of square-integrable solutions of the Schrodinger equation happens to lend itself to the introduction of the appropriate kind of predictive scheme. Investigating the nature and scope of such a scheme is the subject of Part B. It is shown that basic features of the formalism of quantum theory, like composition rules for 'amplitudes' or the 'Born' probability rule, can be derived independently of any physical assumptions. A generalisation of the basic formalism using tensor product composition appears to be required if all correlations are to be extracted from locally accessed data. A detailed discussion of quantum teleportation leads to the conclusion that a 'one-shot' account leads to a distorted picture of what is actually achieved. An analogy with classical cryptography is made and the statistical significance of the 'transfer', which does not require introducing any novel form of 'quantum information', is emphasised. Results obtained over the last decade using the extended formalism of positive operator-valued measures are reviewed and discussed. These lend further support to the idea that the set of basic 'quantum' rules functions as a general kind of probabilistic scheme for prediction, the structural features of which are not constrained in any direct way by the underlying physics. On the other hand, the very existence of such a predictive framework hinges on selecting a particular class of solutions of the Schrodinger equation, which selection has been incorrectly interpreted as reflecting a physical necessity.