The advances in quantum computation are leading to higher computation capabilities, which is expected to reshape the cybersecurity environment. Quantum computers are expected to break most of the public-key security schemes, like RSA, Diffie-Hellman or Elliptic-Curve Cryptography, due to the implications of quantum algorithms like the Shor’s or Grover’s. As a consequence of the quantum computing threat, many studies are being carried out in the recent years in order to develop security schemes and cryptosystems. Within these researches, two main fields stand out due to their security implications: Quantum cryptography, with special emphasis on the Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Post-Quantum Crypthography (PQC). Here we make an analysis of the current landscape of key establishment and encapsulation protocols, algorithms and their applications of these solutions in military environments.
The advances in quantum computation are leading to higher computation capabilities, which is expected to reshape the cybersecurity environment. Quantum computers are expected to break most of the public-key security schemes, like RSA, Diffie-Hellman or Elliptic-Curve Cryptography, due to the implications of quantum algorithms like the Shor’s or Grover’s. As a consequence of the quantum computing threat, many studies are being carried out in the recent years in order to develop security schemes and cryptosystems. Within these researches, two main fields stand out due to their security implications: Quantum cryptography, with special emphasis on the Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Post-Quantum Crypthography (PQC). Here we make an analysis of the current landscape of key establishment and encapsulation protocols, algorithms and their applications of these solutions in military environments.
As quantum computing progresses towards practical realization, the security of existing cryptographic protocols, such as RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), faces unprecedented risks. Quantum algorithms like Shor's Algorithm threaten to undermine the security of these widely used encryption schemes, necessitating the development of quantum-resistant alternatives. This paper explores the vulnerabilities of current cryptographic protocols in the quantum era and investigates quantum-safe cryptographic techniques such as lattice-based, hash-based, and code-based cryptography. Additionally, we delve into Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), a method that leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to securely distribute cryptographic keys, ensuring secure communication even in the presence of quantum adversaries. The integration of QKD with post-quantum cryptographic algorithms is proposed as a robust approach to future-proofing cybersecurity. The paper concludes with a discussion of practical challenges in implementing quantum-safe systems and highlights future research directions to strengthen cryptographic resilience against quantum threats.
Quantum computing, a transformative leap in computational science, is rapidly emerging as a disruptive force capable of reshaping the foundational pillars of cybersecurity and cryptography. Unlike classical computing, which relies on binary states, quantum computing utilizes quantum bits (qubits), leveraging the principles of superposition, entanglement, and quantum tunneling to perform complex calculations at unprecedented speeds. This paradigm shift poses a dual-edged impact on the field of cybersecurity: it offers unparalleled potential for advancing secure communication through quantum cryptographic protocols such as Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), while simultaneously threatening the integrity of classical encryption methods like RSA and ECC, which could be rendered obsolete by quantum algorithms like Shor's and Grover's. This paper explores the current state of quantum computing, its implications for existing cryptographic infrastructures, and the urgent need for post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards. It also examines governmental and institutional responses to the quantum threat, including NIST's ongoing PQC standardization efforts, and the development of hybrid cryptographic models that combine quantumresistant algorithms with classical security measures. Furthermore, the study discusses ethical considerations, regulatory challenges, and the importance of global cooperation in transitioning to a quantum-secure digital future. As quantum technology progresses from theoretical frameworks to practical applications, cybersecurity must evolve in tandem to address both its promises and perils.
With the arrival of fault-tolerant quantum computers, an existential threat has come to the cryptographic underpinnings of the security infrastructure in place for modern information technologies. Virtually all secure digital communication protocols used today are based on classical public-key cryptographic systems – RSA, Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and Diffie-Hellman key exchange – that are susceptible to polynomial-time quantum attacks using Shor's algorithm. Symmetric cryptographic algorithms that are not broken are being effectively halved by Grover's algorithm, for example, AES. In this article, a complete and journal-standard systematic review of quantum computing and its implications in the field of information technology security is presented which includes 22 peer-reviewed publications from 2023-2025. The study covers the basics of quantum computing (qubits, superposition, entanglement and quantum gates), and how quantum computing specifically poses a threat to classical cryptography via algorithmic mechanisms. The three post-quantum cryptographic algorithms that were standardised by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in August 2024 (ML-KEM, FIPS 203; ML-DSA, FIPS 204; and SLH-DSA, FIPS 205) are compared based on their security assumptions, performance, and readiness for deployment. The practical limitations and the use of Quantum Key Distribution, (QKD), as a physics based alternative to the computational security assumptions are discussed. Results show that although mature PQ solutions are now available for most cryptographic applications, the migration challenge, including legacy system transitions, migration architecture, and governance, is significant and pressing as the ‘harvest now, decrypt later’ threat model is relevant and adversaries might be collecting encrypted data for quantum decryption. The impact for financial services, health care, government, cloud infrastructure and critical national infrastructure is discussed. Lastly, the researchers list key research areas: standardisation of quantum-safe protocols, hybrid PQC-QKD designs, light-weight PQC for constrained devices, and quantum-safe blockchain.
The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses an imminent threat to current digital communication security, which relies on classical cryptography. Algorithms such as Shor's threaten to break widely used asymmetric cryptographic systems like RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) and ECC (elliptic curve cryptography). This risk supports the notion of the “quantum apocalypse,” a potential future where quantum capabilities render much of today's encryption obsolete. This paper presents an overview of quantum technologies as potential solutions to these challenges, focusing on quantum key distribution (QKD), post-quantum cryptography (PQC), and the role of quantum random number generators (QRNGs) as sources of entropy and true randomness for both. We examine their principles, representative implementations, and the challenges of scalability and coexistence, offering insights into the future of secure connectivity and the need for proactive strategies in the post-quantum era.
Abstract Quantum computing exploits superposition and entanglement to process information in an exponentially large state space, enabling algorithms such as Shor’s to factor large integers efficiently and thereby undermining RSA and elliptic curve cryptography. Quantum cryptography, here encompassing post quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms and quantum key distribution (QKD), is a leading candidate for protecting data against quantum capable adversaries. PQC designs classical schemes conjectured to be secure against both quantum and classical attacks, whereas QKD uses quantum mechanics to detect eavesdropping and establish information theoretically secure keys. Existing literature and limitations. Recent surveys summarise PQC families and the standardisation process led by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and reviews outline QKD protocols and their challenges. However, most prior work either addresses narrow subtopics or does not systematically synthesise empirical evidence across technical and application domains. As a result, there is still limited integrated understanding of key issues, technologies, mathematical foun dations, algorithms, programming tools and real world deployments. Objective and contributions of this review. This study systematically analyses 61 peer reviewed journal articles published within the last five years that focus on quantum cryptography. Using Covidence to manage study identification, selection, quality assessment, data extraction and narrative synthesis, it (a) characterises current issues and challenges; (b) surveys recent technological advancements and implementations; (c) evaluates algorithmic approaches and their effectiveness; (d) examines the underlying mathematical models; (e) maps the programming languages and tools used to implement quantum schemes; and (f) synthesises evidence on practical applications and future research directions. The review integrates findings on PQC and QKD, highlights gaps in the current evidence base, and offers practitioners, scholars and policymakers guidance for developing quantum secure communication systems. Keywords Quantum cryptography, Post quantum cryptography, Quantum key distribution, Systematic literature review, Quantum secure communication
The threats are existential to the traditional cryptosystems of public keys, including RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic curve cryptography (ECC), due to the rapid progress in quantum computing. Such algorithms as the Shor and Grover algorithms prove that as soon as large scale quantum computers are achieved, these classical cryptographic protocols will not provide any privacy and integrity to online communication. This has created an emergency to find post-quantum cryptography (PQC), or quantum-safe cryptography, which will resist attacks by both classical and quantum attackers. The paper is a review of the latest research and development in post-quantum cryptographic algorithms and their implementation in current security systems. We organize quantum-safe methods into significant organizations such as lattice-based, hash-based, multivariate polynomial-based and code-based encrypted communications. Each type has been evaluated critically based on computational efficiency, key sizes, speed of encryption/decryption and security proofs. The survey also examines the current standardization activities happening in the world and especially the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) PQC competition, which lists candidate algorithms that have advanced to standard adoption. Besides this, the paper addresses hybrid cryptographic designs that use both classical and post-quantum bases in ensuring a seamless migration in the transition phase. Internet security protocols like TLS, VPNs and blockchain consensus as applications of PQC are examined in detail. Lastly, we pinpoint open research issues, which include creating lightweight PQC to support resource-constrained IoT devices, balancing performance and strong security assurances, and interoperability between the new PQC algorithms and existing infrastructures. Through detailed survey we inform the future of researchers, practitioners, and policymakers on the preparation of the post-quantum era of secure digital communications.