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Quantum Information and Measurement (QIM)

Experimental Estimation of Causal Influences in the Presence of Quantum Common Cause

Iris Agresti, Davide Poderini, Beatrice Polacchi, Nikolai Miklin, Mariami Gachechiladze, Alessia Suprano, Emanuele Polino, Giorgio Milani, Gonzalo Carvacho, Rafael Chaves, Fabio Sciarrino

Published Jan 1, 2021• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

The incompatibility between the quantum and classical notion of causality is a well known result in quantum theory. Using a photonic platform we show that, going beyond Bell's scenario, we can detect nonclassicality even when no violation is possible, by intervening in our experimental apparatus.
DOI
10.1364/qim.2021.tu3a.4

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Since Bell's theorem, it is known that local realism fails to explain quantum phenomena. Bell inequality violations manifestly show the incompatibility of quantum theory with classical notions of cause and effect. As recently found, however, the instrumental scenario-a pivotal tool in causal inference-allows for nonclassicality signatures going beyond this paradigm. If we are not limited to observational data and can intervene in our setup, then we can witness quantum violations of classical bounds on the causal influence among the involved variables even when no Bell-like violation is possible. That is, through interventions, the quantum behavior of a system that would seem classical can be demonstrated. Using a photonic setup-faithfully implementing the instrumental causal structure and switching between observation and intervention run by run-we experimentally witness such a nonclassicality. We also test quantum bounds for the causal influence, showing that they provide a reliable tool for quantum causal modeling.
Quantum mechanics challenges our intuition on the cause-effect relations in nature. Some fundamental concepts, including Reichenbach's common cause principle or the notion of local realism, have to be reconsidered. Traditionally, this is witnessed by the violation of a Bell inequality. But are Bell inequalities the only signature of the incompatibility between quantum correlations and causality theory? Motivated by this question, we introduce a general framework able to estimate causal influences between two variables, without the need of interventions and irrespectively of the classical, quantum, or even postquantum nature of a common cause. In particular, by considering the simplest instrumental scenario-for which violation of Bell inequalities is not possible-we show that every pure bipartite entangled state violates the classical bounds on causal influence, thus, answering in negative to the posed question and opening a new venue to explore the role of causality within quantum theory.
Explaining observations in terms of causes and effects is central to empirical science. However, correlations between entangled quantum particles seem to defy such an explanation. This implies that some of the fundamental assumptions of causal explanations have to give way. We consider a relaxation of one of these assumptions, Bell's local causality, by allowing outcome dependence: a direct causal influence between the outcomes of measurements of remote parties. We use interventional data from a photonic experiment to bound the strength of this causal influence in a two-party Bell scenario, and observational data from a Bell-type inequality test for the considered models. Our results demonstrate the incompatibility of quantum mechanics with a broad class of nonlocal causal models, which includes Bell-local models as a special case. Recovering a classical causal picture of quantum correlations thus requires an even more radical modification of our classical notion of cause and effect.
Bell famously showed that it was possible to adjudicate between quantum theory and classical hidden-variable theories on experimental grounds rather than merely philosophical ones. These days, there is a new dispute, regarding the question of how to causally account for Bell correlations, with some suggesting a quantum common cause, others a classical superluminal influence. Here, the authors propose a way to move beyond philosophical disputes by comparing the predictive power of different models. They show that the classical models actually tend to overfit Bell test data.
Bell's theorem is often considered the most stringent notion of nonclassicality. The generalization of Bell's theorem to causal networks offers interesting new perspectives on the phenomenon of quantum nonclassicality and prompts us with a fundamental inquiry: what is the simplest scenario leading to the incompatibility between quantum correlations and the classical theory of causality? Here, we demonstrate that quantum nonclassicality is possible in an entanglement swapping network consisting of only three dichotomic variables, without the need for the locality assumption or external measurement choices. We also show that interventions, a central tool in the field of causal inference, significantly improve the noise robustness of this new kind of nonclassical behavior, making it feasible for experimental tests with current technology.
Understanding the causal influences that hold among parts of a system is critical both to explaining that system's natural behaviour and to controlling it through targeted interventions. In a quantum world, understanding causal relations is equally important, but the set of possibilities is far richer. The two basic ways in which a pair of time-ordered quantum systems may be causally related are by a cause-effect mechanism or by a common-cause acting on both. Here we show a coherent mixture of these two possibilities. We realize this nonclassical causal relation in a quantum optics experiment and derive a set of criteria for witnessing the coherence based on a quantum version of Berkson's effect, whereby two independent causes can become correlated on observation of their common effect. The interplay of causality and quantum theory lies at the heart of challenging foundational puzzles, including Bell's theorem and the search for quantum gravity.