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The European Physical Journal Plus

Contact interactions II; Gross-Pitaewskii equation, Bose-Einstein condensate, Fermi sea

Gianfausto Dell’Antonio

Published Nov 1, 2021• 2 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Abstract In Dell’Antonio (Eur Phys J Plus 13:1–20, 2021), we explored the possibility to analyse contact interaction in Quantum Mechanics using a variational tool, Gamma Convergence. Here, we extend the analysis in Dell’Antonio (Eur Phys J Plus 13:1–20, 2021) of joint weak contact of three particles to the non-relativistic case in which the free one particle Hamiltonian is $$ H_0 = - \frac{\Delta }{2M} $$ H 0 = - Δ 2 M . We derive the Gross–Pitaevskii equation for a system of three particles in joint weak contact. We then define and study strong contact and show that the Gross–Pitaevskii equation is also the variational equation for the energy of the Bose–Einstein condensate (strong contact in a four-particle system). We add some comments on Bogoliubov’s theory. In the second part, we use the non-relativistic Pauli equation and weak contact to derive the spectrum of the conduction electrons in an infinite crystal. We prove that the spectrum is pure point with multiplicity two and eigenvalues that scale as $$ \frac{1}{log {n}}$$ 1 logn .

DOI
10.1140/epjp/s13360-021-02013-7

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Abstract In Dell’Antonio (Eur Phys J Plus 13:1–20, 2021), we explored the possibility to analyse contact interaction in Quantum Mechanics using a variational tool, Gamma Convergence. Here, we extend the analysis in Dell’Antonio (Eur Phys J Plus 13:1–20, 2021) of joint weak contact of three particles to the non-relativistic case in which the free one particle Hamiltonian is H0=−Δ2MH_0 = - \frac{\Delta }{2M}H0​=−2MΔ​ H 0 = - Δ 2 M . We derive the Gross–Pitaevskii equation for a system of three particles in joint weak contact. We then define and study strong contact and show that the Gross–Pitaevskii equation is also the variational equation for the energy of the Bose–Einstein condensate (strong contact in a four-particle system). We add some comments on Bogoliubov’s theory. In the second part, we use the non-relativistic Pauli equation and weak contact to derive the spectrum of the conduction electrons in an infinite crystal. We prove that the spectrum is pure point with multiplicity two and eigenvalues that scale as 1logn \frac{1}{log {n}}logn1​ 1 logn .
In Classical Mechanics constraints describe forces restricting the motion of two systems when they are in contact. In Quantum Mechanics in the Schrodinger representation the state of the system is described by a (probability) wave and the Schrodinger equation is dispersive (it does not preserve locality of the wave function): at any time the wave function is spread out over all space. It is difficult to define "contact". To avoid this difficulty it is convenient to use the Heisenberg representation and describe the system by means of self-adjoint operators on some function space. Each self-adjoint operator operator has a domain of definition. We consider first in some detail the dynamics in R^3 and later consider the case of dimension two and dimension one. In three dimension contact interactions gives the Efimov spectrum of trimers and quadrimers in low energy physics and the Bose-Einstein condensate, both in low density and in high density. The case of dimension one is particularly interesting because the system may represent three particles on a Y-shaped graph with contact interaction at the vertex. We consider both the case of Bose particles which satisfy the Schrodinger equation and the case of spin 1\2 fermions which satisfy the Pauli equation. They form respectively Bose crystals and Fermi crystals (not necessary periodic). In both cases there is only one bound state at each vertex. In an extended crystal, due to Fermi-Dirac statistics, all bound states may be occupied to form the Fermi sea. The particles on the surface have a Dirac spectrum. We prove that in the semiclassical limit the dynamics of particles on the surface of the Fermi sea is the (classical) motion studied in detail by Novikov and Maltsev. In this semiclassical description the Fermi surface can be deformed by a magnetic field and one may have topological resonances.
The Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) is a quantum phenomenon which was theorized in 1920s, but it was realized for the first time in the JILA Laboratory (University of Colorado, Boulder) by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman only in 1995. Since 1995, lots of experiments on BEC have been realized using different gases and various conditions. One can give a correct interpretation of the results of these works only by considering the role of interaction between particles on relevant physical quantities, such as critical temperature and condensed fraction. The purpose of our work is deducing the main thermodynamic properties of trapped and interacting Bose gases using the tools of Quantum Mechanics, avoiding the introduction of (which often recurs in litterature). The first chapter shows a derivation of the famous Gross-Pitaevskii equation, starting from the many-bodies Dirac action and applying the principle of least action. Moreover, two approximate solutions of this equation are discussed as well: the gaussian variational ansatz for weakly interacting particles, and the Thomas-Fermi approximation, for strongly interacting particles. In chapter 2 we derive the Bogoliubov dispersion relation for excited states (or quasiparticle energy spectrum) with the tools of Hamiltonian Mechanics and semiclassical approximation. Furthermore, we discuss some approximations for this formula (especially the Hartree-Fock spectrum for weakly interacting bosons) and we use the Bose-Einstein distribution to find the thermal cloud density. In chapter 3 we use the previous results to calculate explicit expressions for critical temperature and condensed fraction (where possible) in four particular cases: ideal free and trapped Bose gas, interacting free and trapped Bose gas. We also discuss the main results obtained by Giorgini, Pitaevskii and Stringari, who managed to explain accurately Cornell and Wieman's experimental plots. Finally we conclude that traditional Quantum Mechanics is quite efficient to derive the main equations of BEC and that introducing second quantization is not essential. Nevertheless, some issues remain unresolved in this context: for example the phenomenon of quantum depletion and the generalisation of the Gross-Pitaevskii equation at non-zero temperature.
In the present chapter we consider the structure of the Bose–Einstein condensed state in the presence of interactions. Our discussion is based on the Gross–Pitaevskii equation, which describes the zero-temperature properties of the non-uniform Bose gas when the scattering length a is much less than the mean interparticle spacing. We shall first derive the Gross–Pitaevskii equation at zero temperature by treating the interaction between particles in a mean-field approximation (Sec. 6.1). Following that, in Sec. 6.2 we discuss the ground state of atomic clouds in a harmonic-oscillator potential. We compare results obtained by variational methods with those derived in the Thomas-Fermi approximation, in which the kinetic energy operator is neglected in the Gross–Pitaevskii equation. The Thomas–Fermi approximation fails near the surface of a cloud, and in Sec. 6.3 we calculate the surface structure using the Gross–Pitaevskii equation. Finally, in Sec. 6.4 we determine how the condensate wave function ‘heals’ when subjected to a localized disturbance. The Gross–Pitaevskii equation In the previous chapter we have shown that the effective interaction between two particles at low energies is a constant in the momentum representation, U 0 = 4πħ 2 a / m . In coordinate space this corresponds to a contact interaction U 0 δ( r – r ′), where r and r ′ are the positions of the two particles. To investigate the energy of man y-body states we adopt a Hartree or mean-field approach, and assume that the wave function is a symmetrized product of single-particle wave functions.
Bose–Einstein condensation represents a quintessential manifestation of quantum mechanics at macroscopic scales, where a dilute gas of bosonic atoms undergoes a phase transition to form a coherent matter wave. This study presents a comprehensive theoretical investigation of collective excitations and critical phenomena in interacting Bose–Einstein condensates (BECs). Beginning with the Gross–Pitaevskii equation , we develop the Bogoliubov theory of excitations yielding the spectrum , where is the free-particle energy and characterizes contact interactions. The spectrum reveals phonon behavior at low momenta with sound velocity , transitioning to free-particle dispersion at momenta exceeding the inverse healing length . Collective modes in harmonically trapped condensates are analyzed in the Thomas–Fermi regime, yielding breathing mode frequency and quadrupole frequency . Damping mechanisms including Landau damping ( ) and Beliaev damping ( ) are characterized. The Lee–Huang–Yang correction extends the equation of state beyond mean field. Critical phenomena near are analyzed within the 3D XY universality class, with critical exponents , , and the interaction-induced shift with . All predictions show excellent agreement with experimental measurements on ultracold atomic gases.
Consider a system of NNN bosons in three dimensions interacting via a repulsive short range pair potential N2V(N(xi−xj))N^2V(N(x_i-x_j))N2V(N(xi​−xj​)), where $\bx=(x_1, >..., x_N)$ denotes the positions of the particles. Let HNH_NHN​ denote the Hamiltonian of the system and let ψN,t\psi_{N,t}ψN,t​ be the solution to the Schrodinger equation. Suppose that the initial data ψN,0\psi_{N,0}ψN,0​ satisfies the energy condition ≤CN>. \leq C N >. ≤CN>. and that the one-particle density matrix converges to a projection as N→∞N \to \inftyN→∞. Then, we prove that the kkk-particle density matrices of ψN,t\psi_{N,t}ψN,t​ factorize in the limit N→∞N \to \inftyN→∞. Moreover, the one particle orbital wave function solves the time-dependent Gross-Pitaevskii equation, a cubic non-linear Schrodinger equation with the coupling constant proportional to the scattering length of the potential VVV. In \cite{ESY}, we proved the same statement under the condition that the interaction potential VVV is sufficiently small; in the present work we extend this result to large potentials.