We report a different class of ghosts, called ghost diffraction and transmission with compressed spectrum coefficients, for ghost (e.g., analog-signal) transmission in free space through scattering media using a single-pixel detector. The ghost, e.g., analog signal, is first transformed to its spectral domain, such as Hadamard domain. The generated Hadamard spectrum coefficients can be flexibly compressed in order to reduce the number of random patterns to be illuminated and transmitted in free space, and the selected Hadamard spectrum coefficients are sequentially encoded into random amplitude-only patterns as information carriers. In the experiments, high-quality Hadamard spectrum transmission using a coherent light source is realized in different scattering environments, and, subsequently, high-fidelity ghosts are further retrieved from the received Hadamard spectrum coefficients. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method possesses high robustness against wave diffraction, multi-layer scattering, and noise. This class of ghosts provides a different insight about quantum and classical optics for analog-signal transmission in free space, and an avenue toward many applications, e.g., quantum ghost transmission and communication, could be opened up.
We report a different class of ghosts, called ghost diffraction and transmission with compressed spectrum coefficients, for ghost (e.g., analog-signal) transmission in free space through scattering media using a single-pixel detector. The ghost, e.g., analog signal, is first transformed to its spectral domain, such as Hadamard domain. The generated Hadamard spectrum coefficients can be flexibly compressed in order to reduce the number of random patterns to be illuminated and transmitted in free space, and the selected Hadamard spectrum coefficients are sequentially encoded into random amplitude-only patterns as information carriers. In the experiments, high-quality Hadamard spectrum transmission using a coherent light source is realized in different scattering environments, and, subsequently, high-fidelity ghosts are further retrieved from the received Hadamard spectrum coefficients. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method possesses high robustness against wave diffraction, multi-layer scattering, and noise. This class of ghosts provides a different insight about quantum and classical optics for analog-signal transmission in free space, and an avenue toward many applications, e.g., quantum ghost transmission and communication, could be opened up.
Realizing high-fidelity optical information transmission through a scattering medium is of vital importance in both science and applications, such as short-range fiber communication and optical encryption.Theoretically, an input wavefront can be reconstructed by inverting the transmission matrix of the scattering medium.However, this deterministic method for retrieving light field information encoded in the wavefront has not yet been experimentally demonstrated.Herein, we demonstrate light field information transmission through different scattering media with near-unity fidelity.Multi-dimensional optical information can be delivered through either a multimode fiber or a ground glass without relying on any averaging or approximation, where their Pearson correlation coefficients can be up to 99%.
Ghost imaging is an active technique that implies using a time-varying structured illumination source to image a target without spatially-resolving measurements of the light beam that interacts with the target. Traditionally, a beam splitter is used to create two highly correlated beams, such that the signal interacts with the target and is then measured by a single pixel detector, while the reference is directly measured by a spatially resolving detector. This approach allows to implement ghost imaging in the space domain, nevertheless also temporal and frequency domains can be addressed1,2, allowing to extract the pertinent information. In particular, ghost imaging in the frequency domain has been recently applied to extract spectral information from a target object by means of Fourier Transform Interferometry3,4. In this work we illustrate and discuss the results of interaction-free measurements on an Er3+ doped nonlinear crystal, placed in one arm of an interferometer, obtained by using only non-interacting photons. Our equipment is a wave-guided solid state device, exploiting an integrated quantum photonic circuit that is equivalent to an Asymmetric Nonlinear Mach-Zehnder Interferometer. The experiment was performed by using a 250mW monochromatic 980 nm laser source that allowed exciting an Er:LiNbO3 waveguide, placed in one of the arms of the asymmetric interferometer. The interferograms were obtained by varying the signal in the time domain by using a LiNbO3 undoped waveguide in the opposite branch of the interferometer and recorder with a standard Si p-i-n detector, provided with a pass band filter (975nm ± 25nm) thus blocking all photons except the pump ones. The data were analyzed with conventional Fast Fourier Transform Techniques. The application of this approach allowed to recover information in the frequency domain, in particular, despite the monochromatic characteristics of the detected signal, we could recover the whole spectroscopy of the energy levels of the Er3+ doped crystal. The role of the converted photons was evidenced by the fact that, by using a radiation source that does not interact with the dopant (1320nm Laser), only the line of the source is recovered by the FFT handling of the interferograms. An important aspect to remark is that the obtained spectral distribution addressed also the IR part of the spectrum where the applied detector (Si p-i-n) is blind. In this view, this methodology opens the possibility to extend sensitive spectral measurements in spectral regions where detectors show poor responsivity.
An optical encryption (OE) scheme based on the spread spectrum ghost imaging (SSGI), named as SSGI-OE, is proposed to obtain a high security with a smaller key. In the scheme, the randomly selected row number of a Hadamard matrix of order N is used as the secure key, and shared with the authorized user, Bob, through a private channel. Each corresponding row vector of the order-N Hadamard matrix is then used as the direct sequence code to modulate a speckle pattern for the ghost imaging system, and an image is encrypted with the help of the SSGI. The measurement results from the bucket detector, named as ciphertext, are then transmitted to Bob through a public channel. The illuminating speckle patterns are also shared with Bob by the public channel. With the correct secure key, Bob could reconstruct the image with the aid of the SSGI system, whereas the unauthorized user, Eve, could not obtain any useful information of the encrypted image. The numerical simulations and experimental results show that the proposed scheme is feasible with a higher security and a smaller key. For the 32 × 32 pixels image, the number of bits sent from Alice to Bob by using SSGI-OE (M = 1024, N = 2048) scheme is only 0.0107 times over a computational ghost imaging optical encryption scheme. When the eavesdropping ratio (ER) is less than 40%, the eavesdropper cannot acquire any information of the encrypted image. The extreme circumstance for the proposed SSGI-OE scheme is also discussed, where the eavesdropper begins to extract the information when ER is up to 15%.
Ghost imaging is a novel non-conventional technique allowing to generate high resolution images by correlating the intensity of two light beams, neither of which independently contains sufficient information about the spatial distribution and shape of the object. The first demonstration of ghost imaging used light in double photon state, obtained from spontaneous parametric down-conversion. Owing to the entanglement of the source photons, the proposed theory required quantum descriptions for both the optical source and its photo-detection statistics1. However, subsequent experimental and theoretical considerations2,3 demonstrated that ghost imaging can be performed also with thermalized light, utilizing either CCD detector arrays or photon-counting detectors, thus admitting to a semi-classical description, employing classical fields and shot-noise limited detectors. This has generated increasing interest4-6 in establishing a unifying theory that characterizes the fundamental physics of ghost imaging and defines the boundary between classical and quantum domains. In this view, we exploited recent progress obtained through the application of Fourier Transform Techniques to demonstrate ghost imaging in the frequency domain, in order to measure a continuous spectrum by using a highly brilliant and coherent monochromatic source. In particular, we demonstrate the application of this ghost imaging technique to broadband spectroscopic measurements by means of interaction free photon detection. The experimental apparatus and the collected data are described in a dedicated work7. In this paper, we consider the theoretical aspects underlying the proposed Spectroscopic technique. In particular, two alternative theoretical models are presented. In one case, a statistical approach (semi-classical) is applied, where the states of the sampling beam are considered, whereas in the other case a pure quantum treatment is carried on, by describing the interaction of vacuum states generated by photon conversion processes. Both theoretical models, though carried on by means of a complementary formalism, lead to equivalent results and offer a physical interpretation of the collected experimental data. The application of these results offer novel perspectives for remote sensing in low light conditions, or in spectral regions where sensitive detectors are lacking.
In advanced single-pixel imaging systems that use spatial light modulators (SLMs), the scene needs to be illuminated by numerous different patterns that are coded into the SLM to gather information about the object. The appropriate choice of pattern set and reconstruction algorithm are essential for rapid reconstruction of a high-quality image. For single-pixel quantum ghost imaging (QGI) systems, we introduce an adaptive pattern generation method based on the generalized Ising model. The 2D Ising model describes an array of spins arranged in a lattice, where each spin in the lattice can interact with its adjacent spins and also can be influenced by an external magnetic field. By modeling spin values (up or down) as pixel states of the SLM (on or off) and using the Ising model, we can generate binary patterns that closely resemble the object's shape. Imaging using patterns generated by our proposed method can reduce the number of measurements required for high-quality image reconstruction.
The process of image recording is arguably one of the most prevalent technology in modern society and continues to inspire vast swathes of research due to its widespread applications spanning military, medical and consumer spheres. The danger present in a field so broad is that separate niches of research can become isolated with critical advancements struggling to traverse the gulfs between. Unifying the field is the omnipresent drive to acquire an ever increasing quality of images at the lowest possible cost, a goal which warrants continual fundamental research. Quantum entanglement exhibits many intriguing characteristics which make it a suitable tool for such fundamental investigations. The process of spontaneous parametric down- conversion has offered a yet unbeaten strength of photon correlations with the quantum nature of their production providing a reliable and controllable source of single-photons. Arising from these attributes is the technique known as ghost imaging. Though now known to be classically possible, the strength of entanglement generated correlations is yet to be surpassed. This thesis implemented this technique in tandem with the cutting edge detector technology in order to probe the fundamentals of image formation. This form of imaging allowed us to subject an object to a known number of photons whilst acquiring structural information from spatially separate, correlated photons which never interact with the object. The strength of the produced correlations allow us to acquire low background, high resolution images with far less light than traditional techniques and affords many novel benefits. The possibility of incorporating this technique with pre-existent regimes allowed me to draw from advancements made across the landscape of imaging research. Although referred to as “quantum ghost imaging” throughout this work, it should be noted that the intrinsic quantum nature of the correlations was not directly relied upon but provided an ideal source of strongly correlated photons. In order to determine the limits of a traditional imaging system this thesis first sought to answer the question: “can an image of an object be reconstructed from fewer photons than ii pixels in the image?” In chapter 3 I approached this from the perspective of compression, which minimises redundant information within a signal. This lead to the development of an imaging regime capable of imaging with far fewer photons than pixels in the image. By employing assumptions about the sparsity of natural images I was able to reconstruct an image of a biological sample containing an average of less than one photon per image pixel. Having reduced the number of photons necessary to form an image I then considered alternative methods for reducing the optical energy impinging on a sample. I sought to answer the question: “can non-degenerate ghost imaging reduce the optical energy impinged upon an object during imaging”. The photons produced in SPDC need not be of similar wavelengths, however may be chosen far from degeneracy, i.e. non-degenerate. In Chapter 4 I presented a ghost imaging system which illuminated the object with infrared light whilst recording the structural information via entangled visible photons. This allowed for objects opaque to visible light to be imaged in high quality without the need for a spatially resolving infrared detector, the state of the art of which lags behind their silicon based visible counterparts. I presented the systems capabilities by imaging objects which were etched into a gold substrate layered on to silicon, both of which are opaque to visible light. Not only did a reduction in energy deposition arise from the lower energy probe wavelength but applying the reconstruction techniques from the previous chapter brought that down to as low as ≈16 nJcm−2s−1. Seeking to expand the repertoire of applications, the low-light capabilities of my ghost imaging were applied to the technique of phase-contrast microscopy in chapter 5. Typically applied to translucent objects, phase-contrast imaging transfers phase information, i.e. the refractive index changed within the object, into an intensity distribution through the use of a phase-filter. In many of these applications the objects tend to be biological in nature, where high optical exposure can result in bleaching or damage. By applying the phase-filter non- locally, i.e. to the photons correlated to those probing the object, I acquired edge-enhanced images of a phase object whilst illuminating with significantly fewer photons than standard phase-contrast techniques. Having displayed the broad applicability of our low-light ghost imaging system, I then sought to determine the optical resolution in chapter 6. The resolution limits of ghost imaging are not clear at first glance owing to the resolutions dependence upon the strength of spatial correlations. As the length over which the spatial correlations are produced can be brought below the standard diffraction limit, it would seem the resolution of the system could be brought similarly low. To clarify this I artificially restricted the number of spatial modes in each of the correlated beams to uncover the physically realisable resolution. I show that although the resolution of a ghost imaging system to be fundamentally determined by the strength of the correlations, this can never be reached due to the inherent limitations of the intervening imaging system.