electron miscroscope is a typical, practical by-product of the most recent developments in theoretical physics, namely, the conclusion that both radiation and matter must be looked upon as having each a dual character: a wave property and a corpuscular discreteness. A perusal of the table which follows shows that as new properties of natural phenomena reveal themselves in our experiments our theories of what is happening must be revamped to fit new experiences. The attempt to produce a satisfactory theory of natural phenomena is just an attempt on our part to imagine a machine which, working according to the laws of machines familiar to us in this workaday world, will accomplish what really happens in nature. For example, when Dr. Thomas Young in 1800 showed that interference and diffraction of light could be explained by supposing that light is a wave motion in some medium pervading all space, the wave theory of light won general acceptance. In these days, however, in order to provide a satisfactory mechanical model for light we must be prepared to look upon it, on occasion, as a wave motion in space and, on occasion, as a stream of corpuscles. A completely analagous statement may be made regarding an electron. In order to provide a satisfactory mechanical model for the electron we must be prepared to look upon it, on occasion, as a wave motion in space and, on occasion, as a corpuscle, a small material particle of mass 9x1 o28 grams and bearing a negative charge equal to 1.6 x io19 coulombs.
electron miscroscope is a typical, practical by-product of the most recent developments in theoretical physics, namely, the conclusion that both radiation and matter must be looked upon as having each a dual character: a wave property and a corpuscular discreteness. A perusal of the table which follows shows that as new properties of natural phenomena reveal themselves in our experiments our theories of what is happening must be revamped to fit new experiences. The attempt to produce a satisfactory theory of natural phenomena is just an attempt on our part to imagine a machine which, working according to the laws of machines familiar to us in this workaday world, will accomplish what really happens in nature. For example, when Dr. Thomas Young in 1800 showed that interference and diffraction of light could be explained by supposing that light is a wave motion in some medium pervading all space, the wave theory of light won general acceptance. In these days, however, in order to provide a satisfactory mechanical model for light we must be prepared to look upon it, on occasion, as a wave motion in space and, on occasion, as a stream of corpuscles. A completely analagous statement may be made regarding an electron. In order to provide a satisfactory mechanical model for the electron we must be prepared to look upon it, on occasion, as a wave motion in space and, on occasion, as a corpuscle, a small material particle of mass 9x1 o28 grams and bearing a negative charge equal to 1.6 x io19 coulombs.
The years of the third decade of the present century were heady times. Old social orders were being swept away, monarchies becoming republics and the United States of America was emerging as a world power. In physics too, revolutions were taking place, none more potent than that which resulted in the emergence of quantum mechanics as a model for the behaviour of sub-atomic particles. It was Newton who first suggested that light was particulate but during the nineteenth century this view had fallen into neglect. Indeed a number of experiments, for example the classic Young's slits experiment, demonstrated quite conclusively that light was a wave motion. How else could interference fringes occur? However, the experiments on the photoelectric effect demonstrated just as conclusively that light energy was carried in packets, or quanta, and that a continuous wave description was not applicable. This ‘wave or particle’ dilemma was not unique to the behaviour of light. J. J. Thompson showed that cathode rays were charged, had a well defined mass and had all the properties expected of a beam of particles. Nevertheless, Davisson and Germer showed that diffraction of electrons could take place, an effect made visually much more dramatic by G. P. Thompson's transmission electron diffraction patterns. Nowadays, electron diffraction is used as a routine analytical tool in all advanced metallurgical and materials science laboratories (Fig. 2.1). Clearly new axioms were required.
Science, as it is generally described at school, starts with experimental data. Scientists then have to find some hypothesis which explains these results. Using this hypothesis, a prediction is made about what might happen in a slightly different experiment. The double-slit experiment is a modified version of the setup first used by Thomas Young in 1801. Young’s version is a classic experiment that, at the time, seemed to have settled the dispute between wave and particle views of light decisively in favour of waves. The idea that particles might display some wavelike properties dates to the mid-1920s when a young PhD student called Louis De Broglie was thinking about the dual wave/particle nature of light. A quantum mechanical description of the double-slit experiment must involve a set of amplitudes governing the passage of an electron through the slits to the far detector.
The contents of the article is mirrored in its title. In science the fact is well-known, that often opposite notions about that or diverse phenomenon result in identical end results, that produces bitter controversies of the opponents. The example can be served by century dispute between the supporters of the wave and corpuscular nature of light, dispute between a system of Ptolemy and Copernicus and many other conflictings in the most miscellaneous areas of science. The wave description of physical phenomena cannot be executed without of elastic medium (ether) in which one there is a wave process and is diffused by means of this elastic medium. Therefore description of wave phenomena in a solid, liquid and gas adequately mirrors the test datas and problems here does not arise. There, where the elastic medium misses, it is necessary to invent miscellaneous ruses to distribute the wave description and to these objects: empty world space (world ether in the miscellaneous fancy forms), internal space of atoms (wave functions of probability), fields (short-range interaction of fields by means of transfer of a disturbance from one point to other), electromagnetic radiation of the Maxwell (simultaneous oscillation magnetic and electrical field in an elastic medium). The wave description of world is fine is designed, since above it many generations of the known scientists worked, but main brake here it is necessary to have in stock an elastic medium. There, where it no or there are doubts in its existence, a field for critics there is opened. In the formal-mathematical description of the world the elastic medium is not necessary any more. Record a wave equation and decide it for the diversified cases. Though in mathematical relation such description of the world perfectly, but the physical sense of mathematical manipulations is lost. Specially it notably in a quantum mechanics. As a consequence, the similar description it is easy to subject a severe critic. To be salvaged from of intrusive critics, it is necessary to invent completely fancy notions about a microcosmos, which one do not have conformity in a macroworld. Thus, the unity of the world is upset, that directly contradicts fundamental laws of universe. The absence of physical sense is the main unremovable brake of the formal-mathematical description of the world. The corpuscular description of the world, basically, is a merit of Newton. Because of small number of the supporters of such description «have defeated» wave notions. The main brake for of corpuscular world was established by Newton, by formulating the law even and rectilinear motion of free bodies. This law has become force majeure for explanation of an interference, polarization and some other properties of light. Attempts to mate the wave description with corpuscular (wave-corpuscle dualism of microparticles [1]) are originally doomed on a fall because of a principled difference between a wave and particle. The ether is not necessary for the corpuscular description of the world in any to the form, therefore photon, for example, billions of years not «being spread» can move in space, that is impossible from the point of view of the wave description of its motion. The main lack of the corpuscular description of the world consists in incompletness of official toolkit for such description. Only new corpuscular quantum physics has entered notion about originating of a gravidynamic field at motion of gravitational charges and bound with this fact by screw motion of free bodies. It has allowed to revise many fundamental rules of classic physics and quantum mechanicses and to realise a capability of the corpuscular description of the world to the full. Unfortunately, it has taken place after in heads of the scientists strongly was fixed paradigm, designed Einstein and fathers of a quantum mechanics. This paradigm had time knock home in heads of millions students and even of the homemakers. In outcome new scientific paradigm on the basis of new physics meets aggressive hostility. It, certainly, temporary phenomenon and the victory new paradigm in science is foregone, as was already repeatedly. It is a pity, that this the temporary interval, usually, exceeds temporary existence of the person in the land of the living, and orthodoxes permanently self-reproduction by conservative science.
Recent advancements in Transmission Electron Microscopy is built upon the remarkable achievements of the transmission electron microscope, especially, with the aberration corrected object lens, which itself is the incoherent integration of the particle electron optics and modern wave imaging technology.This involves the particle-wave duality of electrons.This book answers questions by applying the de Broglie Hypothesis and Einstein’s Theory of Relativity on the relationship between particles and electromagnetic waves to shed some light onto the electron microscopy. The first chapter explains what an electron is, which includes: (a) using the transmission electron microscope to observe the wave-particle duality of electrons, (b) the internal structure of the electron, (c) the electron as a confined electromagnetic vortices field in a corpuscle space. The following chapters, then, decipher the enigmatic relationship between the de Broglie wave of the electron and the internal electromagnetic flux circulatory motion, and analyze the spatiotemporal modification of the traveling electron corpuscle as it passes through the electron gun and magnetic lens. Based on the de Broglie wave of the traveling electron corpuscle at a certain velocity, the author defines the electron microscopy as the technology steering the velocity of the electron corpuscle assemble which encodes the information of periodic spatial grating constructed by the atoms and electromagnetic potential field, which surround the flying electrons. Then the author uses the space-time Talbot effects of the electrons to interpret the high resolution images, which was first developed by Ijima-Cowley, and expounds the contrast of the high resolution electron microscopy images as the intensity distribution of the assemble of corpuscle electron torus pulses train or beam at near field and at its far-field, which is a diffraction pattern. The final chapter of the book elaborates on how to understand the quantum electron microscopy. This book offers a comprehensive understanding what the quantum electron microscopy is, that may bring the microscopy field beyond the atom’s spatial periodicity in materials.
Abstract It will probably be agreed that among all the recent developments of the quantum theory, one of the least satisfactory is the theory of radiation. The present paper is intended as a preliminary to a new line of attack on the subject. It was begun some time ago, but owing to lack of success in carrying it to a conclusion, its publication has been much delayed. In the meantime other papers have appeared, which in some respects follow the same train of thought. The authors of these works have carried their methods further in some directions than I have attempted, but there is still perhaps room for the discussion of a number of questions from the rather different point of view adopted here. 1. The main principle of the present work is the idea that, since matter and light both possess the dual characters of particle and wave, a similar mathematical treatment ought to be applied to both, and that this has not yet bee done as fully as should be possible. Whereas we have a fairly complete calculus for dealing with the behaviour of any number of electrons or atoms, for photons the existing processes are much less satisfactory. The central difficulty, which makes it hard to apply the ordinary methods of wave mechanics to light, is the fact that (at least according to our present ideas) photons can be created and annihilated, and to represent this in a wave system we have to be able to think of a medium suddenly coming into existence and then going out again, when the light that it was carrying is absorbed. Such behaviour is a grave difficulty in the way of allowing us to think of the photon as a wave, and tends to make us think with more favour of its particle aspect, until we recall that after all it is quite unlike any known particle to come into existence and later to disappear without trace. The theories at present current, such as that of Heisenberg and Pauli, avoid these difficulties because they are mainly formal generalisations of the classical theory; this frees them from the above difficulties, but they pay for it in being highly abstract, and, as it has turned out, rather unsuccessful.
Abstract 1. M. L. de Broglie has introduced a theory of mechanics according to which a moving particle behaves as a group of waves whose velocity and wave-length are governed by the speed and mass of the particle. In fact if m0 is the mass for slow speed and v the speed of a freely moving particle, the wave-length is given by λ = h√1-v2/c2 / m0v, and the wave velocity V by V = c2/v, the group velocity being v, the velocity of the particle. Here c is the velocity of light and it will be seen that the wave velocity is greater than c. There is nothing impossible in this because the waves are regarded as purely geometrical —“phase waves”—not as carrying energy. Compare, in ordinary optical theory, the case of substances, such as sodium, for which the refractive index is less than unity. The above is for free space; in the presence of a field of force V varies, and the consequent bending of the waves by refraction corresponds, on the new theory, to the deviation of the path of the particle by the field of force, on the old. The consequences of this theory have been worked out by de Broglie, Schrödinger and others and applied to problems in spectroscopy where they have provided the solution of several outstanding difficulties left by the older theory of orbits. In view, however, of the extremely fundamental nature of the theory it is highly desirable that it should rest on more direct evidence, and, in particular, that it should be shown capable of predicting as well as of merely explaining. Dymond has obtained some remarkable results on the scattering of slow electrons in helium which are of the general nature to be expected in this theory, but our knowledge of the structure of helium, together with the mathematical difficulties of the problem have so far prevented any exact comparision of the theory with experiment. Davisson and Kunsman and Davisson and Germer have obtained results on the reflection of slow electrons from the surfaces of crystals, especially nickel, which show good qualitative agreement with the theory but a discrepancy of 30 per cent. in certain magnitudes. It is hoped that the experiments described in this paper will advance the matter a stage further. They are a development of some experiments of which a preliminary account appeared recently in ‘Nature.’