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Oxford University Press eBooks

Applications of barrier tunneling phenomena

E. L. Wolf

Published Nov 17, 2011• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Barrier tunnelling devices based on the Josephson effect include superconducting quantum interference detectors (SQUID) in conventional and scanning forms. The use of a scanning SQUID detector to detect a half-flux quantum in a ring of Josephson junctions identifies d-wave superconductivity. The shunted Josephson junction is the basis for the rapid single flux quantum RSFQ class of superconducting logic circuits. The use of RSFQ to form fast analogue to digital ADC converter devices is reported. Various types of radiation detectors are described including SIS detectors, Josephson-effect detectors, and optical point-contact antenna devices.

DOI
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199589494.003.0011

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Barrier tunnelling devices based on the Josephson effect include superconducting quantum interference detectors (SQUID) in conventional and scanning forms. The use of a scanning SQUID detector to detect a half-flux quantum in a ring of Josephson junctions identifies d-wave superconductivity. The shunted Josephson junction is the basis for the rapid single flux quantum RSFQ class of superconducting logic circuits. The use of RSFQ to form fast analogue to digital ADC converter devices is reported. Various types of radiation detectors are described including SIS detectors, Josephson-effect detectors, and optical point-contact antenna devices.
Superconductive electronics is an extensive field covering both low- and high-temperature superconductors (HTS), and their applications in quantum interference devices, power transmission, microwave filters and logic circuits. The microscopic origins of superconductivity are explained by Bardeen–Cooper–Schieffer (BCS) theory whereas a macroscopic treatment is provided by the Ginzburg–Landau theory. The London equations can explain the well-known Meissner effect of exclusion of magnetic induction by superconductors. A widely used device in superconductive electronics is the Josephson junction (JJ). The DC and AC Josephson effects as well as the inverse AC Josephson effects are described. The application of DC and AC superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) in magnetometry are discussed. Rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) logic, touted as a competitive beyond-CMOS technology in nanoelectronics, is briefly surveyed.
Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) that incorporate two superconductor/insulator/superconductor (SIS) Josephson junctions in a closed loop form the core of some of the most sensitive detectors of magnetic and electric fields currently available. SQUIDs in these applications are typically operated with a finite voltage which generates microwave radiation through the ac Josephson effect. This radiation may impact the system being measured. We describe here a SQUID in which the Josephson junctions are formed from strips of normal metal (N) in good electrical contact with the superconductor (S). Such SNS SQUIDs can be operated under a finite voltage bias with performance comparable or potentially better than conventional SIS SQUIDs. However, they also permit a mode of operation that is based on the unusual interplay of quasiparticle currents and supercurrents in the normal metal of the Josephson junction. The method allows measurements of the flux dependence of the critical current of the SNS SQUID without applying a finite voltage bias across the SNS junction, enabling sensitive flux detection without generating microwave radiation.
SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices) have been in use for more than half a century and constitute one of the first macroscopic quantum devices. SQUIDs operating at millikelvin temperatures can act as qubits for quantum computers and the recent reports of more than 50 qubit circuits indicate how far the technology has developed. In this talk, the author will describe two other applications of SQUIDs as quantum detectors, focusing on single spin and single photon energy resolving detection. Most superconducting devices rely on tri-layer Josephson tunnel junctions which are not easily scalable to the nanoscale. We have developed a Josephson junction fabrication method, based on electron beam lithography or focused ion beam milling of a single thin film of superconductor (Nb generally) which can provide sizes down to 50 nm. These devices are particularly relevant for two main applications in quantum technology and metrology. First, by shrinking the size of the SQUID loop and the junctions to around 200 nm, the sensitivity of the SQUID for magnetization measurements is improved to the level where a single electron spin flip may be detected. This is possible at the relatively elevated temperature of 4K.  We are working with Surrey University to implant single magnetic ions within the SQUID loop to provide a platform to test this combination as the basis for a new form of qubit operating at higher temperatures than the conventional Transmon superconducting devices. A second SQUID based detector which we are developing is an inductive transition edge sensor device (ISTED) for energy resolving measurements of single photons. This is based on the development of conventional transition edge sensors where we detect the change of the penetration depth of a small thin film of superconductor when it absorbs a photon. In this way, a major source of noise in conventional TES may be avoided since the absorber remains in the superconducting state at all times. In this way we have demonstrated single photon detection at 633 nm with 0.1eV resolution at operating temperature of 7.5K.
A new generation of the Josephson digital circuits-rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) devices-based on overdamped externally shunted high quality Nb-AlO x -Nb tunnel junctions have been designed, fabricated and experimentally investigated. All-refractory material 11-layer 5 mu m integrated technology has been successfully employed for the preparation of the RSFQ microcircuits. The T flip-flop has been demonstrated to operate properly up to clock frequencies of 100 GHz at 25% margins. The proper operation of the buffer stage for a one-directional SFQ pulse transmission at clock frequencies up to 125 GHz has been achieved. The possibilities to convert the information from the usual DC form to SFQ and vice versa have been demonstrated. An output signal in an SFQ/DC converter as high as 220 mu V has been measured. A new counter type A/D converter which includes a comparator and reversible binary counter with DC outputs has been fabricated and tested. The proposed ADC seems to be very promising for high-accuracy measurement of medium-bandwidth signals. The possibilities of creating a number of SFQ devices with outstanding parameters are discussed.
We have already seen, in Chapter 2 , that the complex response of a Josephson junction to applied electromagnetic radiation forms a basis for both broad-band and heterodyne detection modes, ranging from low frequencies to the far-infrared. Greater detail of actual working devices of this type will be given in this chapter. The second topic dealt with is digital applications of squid s. This is already a significant, and may in the future become a dominant, use of low-power superconducting technology. At first sight the contents of this chapter may seem to divide into two rather disconnected areas. However, logic devices have two important characteristics in common with radiation detectors: first, both involve very high-frequency operation, since slow digital devices are of little or no practical interest. Second, both applications demand the use of well characterised and reproducible small-area junctions with similar parameters. In what follows, more details of junction fabrication methods will be given than have been discussed earlier in the book. This reflects the fact that well defined junction properties are of the utmost importance in achieving high performance in these areas. It seems paradoxical that squid s, for all their unparalleled sensitivity, will operate very satisfactorily with far from ideal Josephson junctions. This is mainly because squid s have only been used in rather low-frequency applications, for which the low resistive and reactive impedances associated with poor-quality junctions do not limit performance.