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NOVEL A Forum on Fiction

The Dice of God: Einstein, Heisenberg, and Robert Coover

Arlen J. Hansen

Published Jan 1, 1976• 3 citations
Publisher

Abstract

The Fifth Solvay Conference, in Brussels in 1927, was a watershed in the history of modern physics. It separated the old revolutionaries from the young. There was Einstein, the inspiration of them all, the man who had upended the world by his startling discoveries twenty years earlier. Maintaining that classical mechanics could not explain the behavior of electromagnetic and light phenomena, had posited a relativistic mechanics and had confirmed it with his own application of non-Euclidean geometry. Newton's mechanics works here, said in effect, but not there, pointing to the electromagnetic phenomena addressed by Maxwell's theories. So, in one sense, Einstein's work in relativity was conservative: it salvaged much of Newton's theory by discovering the limits of its applicability. It may not be surprising, therefore, to find on the conservative side of the watershed in 1927. The young Turks, on the other side, clustered around the Danish physicist, Niels Bohr. Sometimes referred to as the Copenhagen group, Bohr, Max Born, and a young German, Werner Heisenberg, proposed some profoundly radical ideas-some inconceivable ideas which challenged the human imagination. The point of contention between and the Copenhagen group lay in the fact that quantum theory as developed by Bohr, Heisenberg, and others provides knowledge that is probabilistic. In Physics and Beyond Heisenberg recalls that Einstein would not admit that it was impossible, even in principle, to discover all the partial facts needed for a complete description of a physical process (New York, 1971, p. 80; hereafter PAB). Just prior to the 1927 conference Heisenberg had shown that knowing the location of an electron to a given degree of precision

DOI
10.2307/1344901

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College student journal•Sep 1, 2011•0 citations
The Fifth Solvay Conference, in Brussels in 1927, was a watershed in the history of modern physics. It separated the old revolutionaries from the young. There was Einstein, the inspiration of them all, the man who had upended the world by his startling discoveries twenty years earlier. Maintaining that classical mechanics could not explain the behavior of electromagnetic and light phenomena, had posited a relativistic mechanics and had confirmed it with his own application of non-Euclidean geometry. Newton's mechanics works here, said in effect, but not there, pointing to the electromagnetic phenomena addressed by Maxwell's theories. So, in one sense, Einstein's work in relativity was conservative: it salvaged much of Newton's theory by discovering the limits of its applicability. It may not be surprising, therefore, to find on the conservative side of the watershed in 1927. The young Turks, on the other side, clustered around the Danish physicist, Niels Bohr. Sometimes referred to as the Copenhagen group, Bohr, Max Born, and a young German, Werner Heisenberg, proposed some profoundly radical ideas-some inconceivable ideas which challenged the human imagination. The point of contention between and the Copenhagen group lay in the fact that quantum theory as developed by Bohr, Heisenberg, and others provides knowledge that is probabilistic. In Physics and Beyond Heisenberg recalls that Einstein would not admit that it was impossible, even in principle, to discover all the partial facts needed for a complete description of a physical process (New York, 1971, p. 80; hereafter PAB). Just prior to the 1927 conference Heisenberg had shown that knowing the location of an electron to a given degree of precision
On October 24th, 1927, the world's most important physicists met in Brussels for what is known as the fifth edition of the Solvay Conference. The focus of the discussion was the new Quantum Mechanics, to which most of the people present at the meeting had contributed but about which they had contrasting opinions. On the one hand, Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg claimed they had provided the new science with a definite structure, not subject to further modifications, while on the other, eminent figures such as Erwin Schrodinger and Albert Einstein believed that the theories put forward by the so called Copenhagen School, of which Bohr and Heisenberg were the most important exponents, were incorrect or at least incomplete.
The pivotal shift in Physics initiated by Erwin Heisenberg's seminal work in 1925 marked a significant departure from classical paradigms towards what is now known as modern quantum physics. Heisenberg's groundbreaking paper, "On the quantum-theoretical reinterpretation of kinematical and mechanical relationships," commonly referred to as "Die Umdeutung," heralded a radical transformation in the foundation of physics. By replacing the traditional religious notion of "Causality" with an atheistic concept of "Probability," Heisenberg's work revolutionized the field. The removal of "Causality" challenged the religious underpinning of physics, leading to a reevaluation of fundamental principles. This shift, epitomized by the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, transformed the deterministic worldview into a probabilistic one, sparking debates on the nature of existence and human agency. The ramifications of this paradigm shift extended beyond theoretical discourse. The ethical implications of scientific advancements, exemplified by the development of the atomic bomb during World War II, underscored the complex interplay between physics, morality, and political ideologies. The juxtaposition of Heisenberg's involvement in Nazi Germany's atomic research and Oppenheimer's leadership in the Manhattan Project highlighted the ethical dilemmas faced by scientists in wartime. Moreover, the integration of Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle with Newton's Causality Principle rekindles discussions on the interconnectedness of Physics, Philosophy, and Theology. The quest for a unified framework underscores the importance of reconciling divergent perspectives to forge a coherent understanding of the universe. This synthesis seeks to bridge the gap between classical paradigms and modern quantum theory, offering new insights into the intertwined fabric of physical laws and metaphysical beliefs. During the 5th Solvay in 1927 has been the famous discussion between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr when Einstein declared: “God does not play Dice”. Formally this discussion was between Einstein and Bohr. But the real discussion was between Einstein and Heisenberg. Heisenberg the creator of the principle of “Fundamental Uncertainty”.
The Fifth Solvay Conference on Physics, held from October 24 to 29, 1927, stands as one of the most renowned gatherings in the history of physics. The conference, which brought together the world’s most distinguished physicists, focused on the cutting-edge topics of electrons and photons, delving into the profound implications of the newly developed quantum theory. Among the leading contributors were Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger, who had developed wave mechanics and the renowned Schrödinger equation, and Werner Karl Heisenberg, who introduced matrix mechanics. Their groundbreaking work laid the foundation for much of the conference's discussions. Among the illustrious attendees were Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885–1962), who were central figures in the debates that would shape the future of physics. Their exchanges on the nature of quantum mechanics became legendary while the discussions at this conference marked a pivotal moment in the development of modern science.
The 1935 paper by Einstein, Podolski and Rosen represented the culmination of a long debate that had begun soon after quantum theory was developed in the 1920s. One of the main protagonists in this discussion was Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist who worked in Copenhagen until, like so many other European scientists of his time, he became a refugee in the face of the German invasion during the Second World War. As we shall see, Bohr's views differed strongly from those of Einstein and his co-workers on a number of fundamental issues, but it was his approach to the fundamental problems of quantum physics that eventually gained general, though not universal, acceptance. Because much of Bohr's work was done in that city, his ideas and those developed from them have become known as the ‘Copenhagen interpretation’. In this chapter we shall discuss the main ideas of this approach. We shall try to appreciate its strengths as well as attempting to understand why some believe that there are important questions left unanswered. When Einstein said that ‘God does not play dice’, Bohr is said to have replied ‘Don't tell God what to do!’ The historical accuracy of this exchange may be in doubt, but it encapsulates the differences in approach of the two men. Whereas Einstein approached quantum physics with doubts, and sought to reveal its incompleteness by demonstrating its lack of consistency with our everyday ways of thinking about the physical universe, Bohr's approach was to accept the quantum ideas and to explore their consequences for our everyday ways of thinking.
The 1935 paper by Einstein, Podolski and Rosen represented the culmination of a long debate that had begun soon after quantum theory was developed in the 1920s. One of the main protagonists in this discussion was Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist who worked in Copenhagen until, like so many other European scientists of his time, he became a refugee in the face of the German invasion during the Second World War. As we shall see, Bohr's views differed strongly from those of Einstein and his co-workers on a number of fundamental issues, but it was his approach to the fundamental problems of quantum physics that eventually gained general, though not universal, acceptance. Because much of Bohr's work was done in that city, his ideas and those developed from them have become known as the ‘Copenhagen interpretation’. In this chapter we shall discuss the main ideas of this approach. We shall try to appreciate its strengths as well as attempting to understand why some believe that there are important questions left unanswered. When Einstein said that ‘God does not play dice’, Bohr is said to have replied ‘Don't tell God what to do!’ The historical accuracy of this exchange may be in doubt, but it encapsulates the differences in approach of the two men. Whereas Einstein approached quantum physics with doubts, and sought to reveal its incompleteness by demonstrating its lack of consistency with our everyday ways of thinking about the physical universe, Bohr's approach was to accept the quantum ideas and to explore their consequences for our everyday ways of thinking.
This paper takes a look at the two cornerstones of modern physics--Quantum Mechanics and The Theory of Relativity (Both Special and General). The differences and similarities for the two subjects are presented. More of their differences and similarities will emerge with new developments in physics. One can't rule out the possibility of the two being unified into one one fine day. That will herald another triumphant moment in physics. Introduction In 1905, Albert Einstein at the age of twenty-six formulated single-handedly, among others, the Theory of Special Relativity together with his other seminal papers on photoelectricity, Brownian motions of atoms and molecular dimensions. The year has been universally declared the Miraculous Year [1]. Ten years later, he came up with the theory of General Relativity--a new and revolutionary framework on gravity. Meanwhile in Europe a group of young physicists played pivotal role in the birth of Quantum Mechanics. Many of them went on to win Nobel prizes for their monumental contributions. Einstein also won the coveted prize not for Relativity but ironically for Photoelectric Effect. Irony has been part of physics in its history. Relativity with its weird 'Twin Paradox', constancy of the speed of light and the interchangebility between mass and energy (E=[mc.sup.2]) enthralls the public and scientists alike. It provides a way to measure particle masses [2]. The Quantum Theory has its fair share of weirdness and bewilderment. Both Quantum Mechanics and the Theory of Relativity bring forth new ideas in human thoughts. They are among Joanne Baker's 50 physics ideas [3]. Quantum Mechanics and the Theory of Relativity The quantum world where counterintuition reigns supreme is couched in uncertainty as epitomised by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Things do not behave in a deterministic way as enshrined and expected in classical Newtonian physics. The microscopic world of the electrons was dictated by randomness and indeterminacy. Albert Einstein was appalled by such dictates that he famously declared: 'God does not play dice with the universe.' The famous Danish physicist Neils Bohr sprang to his feet by saying: 'Stop telling God what to do with his dice.' The sparring between the two stalwarts in physics is legendary. According to Trefil [4], there are a couple of things that need to be said about the uncertainty principle: it does not imply that we cannot know either the position or the velocity of a particle, and it does not require the presence of a conscious mind. Marcus Chown [5] wraps up by saying 'The bitter irony, not lost on Einstein, was that he was the one who, by postulating the existence of the photon, had inadvertently set loose the genie of randomness of physics. The two theories of relativity by Einstein are not couched in randomness however. According to Smoot [6], both implied a radically new cosmology. Many people are of the opinion that with Einstein's theory of relativity, old classical physics is no more in vogue. According to Angier [7], Albert Einstein did not prove that Isaac Newton was wrong. Instead, he showed that Newton's theories of motion and gravity were incomplete, and that new equations were needed to explain the behavior of objects under extreme circumstances, such as when tiny particles travel at or near the speed of light. …