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Computing with quantum knots: Marjorana modes, non-Abelian anyons, and topological quantum computation

S. Das Sarma

Published Oct 3, 2012• 0 citations
OpenAlex

Abstract

I will discuss the revolutionary new concept of topological quantum computation, which is fault-tolerant at the hardware level with no need, in principle, of any quantum error correction protocols. Errors simply do not occur since the physical qubits and the computation steps are protected against decoherence by non-local topological correlations in the underlying physical system. The key idea is non-Abelian statistics of the quasiparticles (called 'anyons' as opposed to fermions or bosons), where the space-time braiding of the anyons around each other, i.e. quantum 'knots', form topologically protected quantum gate operations. I will describe in detail the theoretical principles guiding the experimental search for the appropriate topological phases of matter where such non-Abelian anyons, which are low-dimensional solid state versions of the elusive and exotic Majorana fermions hypothesized seventy-five years ago, may exist. I will critically discuss the recent experimental claims of observing the Majorana modes in semiconductor nanowire structures following earlier theoretical proposals, outlining the future developments which would be necessary to eventually build a topological quantum computer.

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Topological quantum computing seeks to store and manipulate information in a protected manner using topological phases of matter. Information encoded in the degenerate state space of pairs of non-Abelian anyons or defects is robust to local perturbations, reducing its susceptiblity to environmental errors and potentially providing a scalable approach to quantum computing. However, topological quantum computing faces significant challenges, not least of which is identifying an experimentally accessible platform supporting non-Abelian topological physics. In this thesis, we critically analyze topological quantum computing with Majorana zero modes, non-Abelian defects of a topological superconductor. We identify intrinsic error sources for Majorana-based systems and propose quantum computing architectures that minimize their effects. Additionally, we consider a new approach for realizing and detecting non-Abelian topological defects in fractional Chern insulators. Topological quantum computing is predicated on the idea that braiding non-Abelian anyons adiabatically can implement quantum gates fault tolerantly. However, any braiding experiment will necessarily depart from the strict adiabatic limit. We begin by analyzing the nature of diabatic errors for anyon braiding, paying particular attention to how such errors scale with braiding time. We find that diabatic errors are unfavorably large and worryingly sensitive to details of the time evolution. We present a measurement-based correction protocol for such errors, and illustrate its application in a particular Majorana-based qubit design. We next propose designs for Majorana-based qubits operated entirely by a measurement-based protocol, thereby avoiding the diabatic errors discussed above. Our designs can be scaled into large two dimensional arrays amenable to long-term quantum computing goals, whose core components are testable in near-term devices. These qubits are robust to quasiparticle poisoning, anticipated to be one of the dominant error sources coupling to Majorana zero modes. We demonstrate that our designs support topologically protected Clifford operations and can be augmented to a universal gate set without requiring additional control parameters.While topological protection greatly suppresses errors, residual coupling to noise limits the lifetimes of our proposed Majorana-based qubits. We analyze the dephasing times for our quasiparticle-poisoning-protected qubits by calculating their charge distribution using a particle number-conserving formalism. We find that fluctuations in the electromagnetic environment couple to an exponentially suppressed topological dipole moment. We estimate dephasing times due to $1/f$ noise, thermal quasiparticle excitations, and phonons for different qubit sizes.The residual errors discussed above will necessarily require error correction for a sufficiently long quantum computation. We develop physically motivated noise models for Majorana-based qubits that can be used to analyze the performance of a quantum error correcting code. We apply this noise model to estimate pseudo-thresholds for a small subsystem code, identifying the relative importance of difference error processes from a fault tolerance perspective. Our results emphasize the necessity of suppressing long-lived quasiparticle excitations that can spread across the code.Finally, we turn our attention to a different platform that could host non-Abelian topological defects: fractional Chern insulators in graphene. We study the edge states of fractional Chern insulators using the field theory of fractional quantum Hall edges supplemented with a symmetry action. We find that lattice symmetries impose a quantized momentum difference for edge electrons in a fractional state of a $C=2$ Chern band. This momentum difference can be used to selectively contact the different edge states, thereby allowing detection of topological defects in the bulk with a standard four terminal measurement. Our proposal could be implemented in graphene subject to an artificially patterned lattice.

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Topological quantum computation has emerged as one of the most exciting approaches to constructing a fault-tolerant quantum computer. The proposal relies on the existence of topological states of matter whose quasiparticle excitations are neither bosons nor fermions, but are particles known as non-Abelian anyons, meaning that they obey non-Abelian braiding statistics. Quantum information is stored in states with multiple quasiparticles, which have a topological degeneracy. The unitary gate operations that are necessary for quantum computation are carried out by braiding quasiparticles and then measuring the multiquasiparticle states. The fault tolerance of a topological quantum computer arises from the nonlocal encoding of the quasiparticle states, which makes them immune to errors caused by local perturbations. To date, the only such topological states thought to have been found in nature are fractional quantum Hall states, most prominently the $\ensuremath{\nu}=5∕2$ state, although several other prospective candidates have been proposed in systems as disparate as ultracold atoms in optical lattices and thin-film superconductors. In this review article, current research in this field is described, focusing on the general theoretical concepts of non-Abelian statistics as it relates to topological quantum computation, on understanding non-Abelian quantum Hall states, on proposed experiments to detect non-Abelian anyons, and on proposed architectures for a topological quantum computer. Both the mathematical underpinnings of topological quantum computation and the physics of the subject are addressed, using the $\ensuremath{\nu}=5∕2$ fractional quantum Hall state as the archetype of a non-Abelian topological state enabling fault-tolerant quantum computation.

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A quantum computer can perform exponentially faster than its classical counterpart. It works on the principle of superposition. But due to the decoherence effect, the superposition of a quantum state gets destroyed by the interaction with the environment. It is a real challenge to completely isolate a quantum system to make it free of decoherence. This problem can be circumvented by the use of topological quantum phases of matter. These phases have quasiparticles excitations called anyons. The anyons are charge-flux composites and show exotic fractional statistics. When the order of exchange matters, then the anyons are called non-Abelian anyons. Majorana fermions in topological superconductors and quasiparticles in some quantum Hall states are non-Abelian anyons. Such topological phases of matter have a ground state degeneracy. The fusion of two or more non-Abelian anyons can result in a superposition of several anyons. The topological quantum gates are implemented by braiding and fusion of the non-Abelian anyons. The fault-tolerance is achieved through the topological degrees of freedom of anyons. Such degrees of freedom are non-local, hence inaccessible to the local perturbations. In this dissertation, we provide a comprehensive review of the fundamentals of logic design in topological quantum computing. The braid group and knot invariants in the skein theory are discussed. The physical insight behind the braiding is explained by the geometric phases and the gauge transformation. The mathematical models for the fusion and braiding are presented in terms of the category theory and the quantum deformation of the recoupling theory. The topological phases of matter are described by the topology of band structure. The wave function of quasiparticles in the quantum Hall effect and the theory of Majorana fermions in topological superconductors are also discussed. The dynamics of the charge-flux composites and their Hilbert space are expressed through the Chern-Simons theory and the two-dimensional topological quantum field theory. The Ising and Fibonacci anyonic models for binary gates are briefly given. Ternary logic gates are more compact than their binary counterparts and naturally arise in a type of anyonic model called the metaplectic anyons. We reduced the quantum cost of the existing ternary quantum arithmetic gates and proposed that these gates can be implemented with the metaplectic anyons.

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Topological quantum computation aims to encode quantum information in the nonlocal degrees of freedom of non-Abelian anyons and manipulate it through braiding and fusion operations， offering a promising pathway to fault-tolerant quantum computation. Non-Abelian anyons， with their nontrivial braiding statistics and intrinsic topological fault tolerance， are regarded as a key building block for realizing scalable and decoherence-resistant quantum computing. This review systematically surveys the key developments in anyon physics over the past four decades， from the early theoretical prediction of fractional statistics to direct experimental verification of anyon braiding in fractional quantum Hall states. The physical principles and key findings of essential experimental schemes， including Fabry-Pérot interferometers， Mach-Zehnder interferometers， and anyon colliders， are comprehensively covered. Based on these foundations， the characterization of topological order in even-denominator fractional quantum Hall states， exemplified by the ν=5/2 state， and transport and interferometric probes of non-Abelian statistics are discussed in detail. Furthermore， recent advances in topological quantum states in novel material platforms， including graphene and twisted transition metal dichalcogenides， are reviewed， together with artificial quantum platforms that simulate non-Abelian braiding using superconducting quantum processors. Finally， the key challenges and future directions on the path from anyon physics to scalable topological quantum computing prototype devices are outlined.

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A paradigm to build a quantum computer, based on topological invariants is highlighted. The identities in the ensemble of knots, links and braids originally discovered in relation to topological quantum field theory are shown: how they define Artin braid group -- the mathematical basis of topological quantum computation (TQC). Vector spaces of TQC correspond to associated strings of particle interactions, and TQC operates its calculations on braided strings of special physical quasiparticles -- anyons -- with non-Abelian statistics. The physical platform of TQC is to use the topological quantum numbers of such small groups of anyons as qubits and to perform operations on these qubits by exchanging the anyons, both within the groups that form the qubits and, for multi-qubit gates, between groups. By braiding two or more anyons, they acquire up a topological phase or Berry phase similar to that found in the Aharonov-Bohm effect. Topological matter such as fractional quantum Hall systems and novel discovered topological insulators open the way to form system of anyons -- Majorana fermions -- with the unique property of encoding and processing quantum information in a naturally fault-tolerant way. In the topological insulators, due to its fundamental attribute of topological surface state occurrence of the bound, Majorana fermions are generated at its heterocontact with superconductors. One of the key operations of TQC -- braiding of non-Abelian anyons: it is illustrated how it can be implemented in one-dimensional topological isolator wire networks.

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I will discuss the revolutionary new concept of topological quantum computation, which is fault-tolerant at the hardware level with no need, in principle, of any quantum error correction protocols. Errors simply do not occur since the physical qubits and the computation steps are protected against decoherence by non-local topological correlations in the underlying physical system. The key idea is non-Abelian statistics of the quasiparticles (called 'anyons' as opposed to fermions or bosons), where the space-time braiding of the anyons around each other, i.e. quantum 'knots', form topologically protected quantum gate operations. I will describe in detail the theoretical principles guiding the experimental search for the appropriate topological phases of matter where such non-Abelian anyons, which are low-dimensional solid state versions of the elusive and exotic Majorana fermions hypothesized seventy-five years ago, may exist. I will critically discuss the recent experimental claims of observing the Majorana modes in semiconductor nanowire structures following earlier theoretical proposals, outlining the future developments which would be necessary to eventually build a topological quantum computer.
Topological quantum computing seeks to store and manipulate information in a protected manner using topological phases of matter. Information encoded in the degenerate state space of pairs of non-Abelian anyons or defects is robust to local perturbations, reducing its susceptiblity to environmental errors and potentially providing a scalable approach to quantum computing. However, topological quantum computing faces significant challenges, not least of which is identifying an experimentally accessible platform supporting non-Abelian topological physics. In this thesis, we critically analyze topological quantum computing with Majorana zero modes, non-Abelian defects of a topological superconductor. We identify intrinsic error sources for Majorana-based systems and propose quantum computing architectures that minimize their effects. Additionally, we consider a new approach for realizing and detecting non-Abelian topological defects in fractional Chern insulators. Topological quantum computing is predicated on the idea that braiding non-Abelian anyons adiabatically can implement quantum gates fault tolerantly. However, any braiding experiment will necessarily depart from the strict adiabatic limit. We begin by analyzing the nature of diabatic errors for anyon braiding, paying particular attention to how such errors scale with braiding time. We find that diabatic errors are unfavorably large and worryingly sensitive to details of the time evolution. We present a measurement-based correction protocol for such errors, and illustrate its application in a particular Majorana-based qubit design. We next propose designs for Majorana-based qubits operated entirely by a measurement-based protocol, thereby avoiding the diabatic errors discussed above. Our designs can be scaled into large two dimensional arrays amenable to long-term quantum computing goals, whose core components are testable in near-term devices. These qubits are robust to quasiparticle poisoning, anticipated to be one of the dominant error sources coupling to Majorana zero modes. We demonstrate that our designs support topologically protected Clifford operations and can be augmented to a universal gate set without requiring additional control parameters.While topological protection greatly suppresses errors, residual coupling to noise limits the lifetimes of our proposed Majorana-based qubits. We analyze the dephasing times for our quasiparticle-poisoning-protected qubits by calculating their charge distribution using a particle number-conserving formalism. We find that fluctuations in the electromagnetic environment couple to an exponentially suppressed topological dipole moment. We estimate dephasing times due to 1/f1/f1/f noise, thermal quasiparticle excitations, and phonons for different qubit sizes.The residual errors discussed above will necessarily require error correction for a sufficiently long quantum computation. We develop physically motivated noise models for Majorana-based qubits that can be used to analyze the performance of a quantum error correcting code. We apply this noise model to estimate pseudo-thresholds for a small subsystem code, identifying the relative importance of difference error processes from a fault tolerance perspective. Our results emphasize the necessity of suppressing long-lived quasiparticle excitations that can spread across the code.Finally, we turn our attention to a different platform that could host non-Abelian topological defects: fractional Chern insulators in graphene. We study the edge states of fractional Chern insulators using the field theory of fractional quantum Hall edges supplemented with a symmetry action. We find that lattice symmetries impose a quantized momentum difference for edge electrons in a fractional state of a C=2C=2C=2 Chern band. This momentum difference can be used to selectively contact the different edge states, thereby allowing detection of topological defects in the bulk with a standard four terminal measurement. Our proposal could be implemented in graphene subject to an artificially patterned lattice.
Topological quantum computation has emerged as one of the most exciting approaches to constructing a fault-tolerant quantum computer. The proposal relies on the existence of topological states of matter whose quasiparticle excitations are neither bosons nor fermions, but are particles known as non-Abelian anyons, meaning that they obey non-Abelian braiding statistics. Quantum information is stored in states with multiple quasiparticles, which have a topological degeneracy. The unitary gate operations that are necessary for quantum computation are carried out by braiding quasiparticles and then measuring the multiquasiparticle states. The fault tolerance of a topological quantum computer arises from the nonlocal encoding of the quasiparticle states, which makes them immune to errors caused by local perturbations. To date, the only such topological states thought to have been found in nature are fractional quantum Hall states, most prominently the $\ensuremath{\nu}=5∕2$ state, although several other prospective candidates have been proposed in systems as disparate as ultracold atoms in optical lattices and thin-film superconductors. In this review article, current research in this field is described, focusing on the general theoretical concepts of non-Abelian statistics as it relates to topological quantum computation, on understanding non-Abelian quantum Hall states, on proposed experiments to detect non-Abelian anyons, and on proposed architectures for a topological quantum computer. Both the mathematical underpinnings of topological quantum computation and the physics of the subject are addressed, using the $\ensuremath{\nu}=5∕2$ fractional quantum Hall state as the archetype of a non-Abelian topological state enabling fault-tolerant quantum computation.
A quantum computer can perform exponentially faster than its classical counterpart. It works on the principle of superposition. But due to the decoherence effect, the superposition of a quantum state gets destroyed by the interaction with the environment. It is a real challenge to completely isolate a quantum system to make it free of decoherence. This problem can be circumvented by the use of topological quantum phases of matter. These phases have quasiparticles excitations called anyons. The anyons are charge-flux composites and show exotic fractional statistics. When the order of exchange matters, then the anyons are called non-Abelian anyons. Majorana fermions in topological superconductors and quasiparticles in some quantum Hall states are non-Abelian anyons. Such topological phases of matter have a ground state degeneracy. The fusion of two or more non-Abelian anyons can result in a superposition of several anyons. The topological quantum gates are implemented by braiding and fusion of the non-Abelian anyons. The fault-tolerance is achieved through the topological degrees of freedom of anyons. Such degrees of freedom are non-local, hence inaccessible to the local perturbations. In this dissertation, we provide a comprehensive review of the fundamentals of logic design in topological quantum computing. The braid group and knot invariants in the skein theory are discussed. The physical insight behind the braiding is explained by the geometric phases and the gauge transformation. The mathematical models for the fusion and braiding are presented in terms of the category theory and the quantum deformation of the recoupling theory. The topological phases of matter are described by the topology of band structure. The wave function of quasiparticles in the quantum Hall effect and the theory of Majorana fermions in topological superconductors are also discussed. The dynamics of the charge-flux composites and their Hilbert space are expressed through the Chern-Simons theory and the two-dimensional topological quantum field theory. The Ising and Fibonacci anyonic models for binary gates are briefly given. Ternary logic gates are more compact than their binary counterparts and naturally arise in a type of anyonic model called the metaplectic anyons. We reduced the quantum cost of the existing ternary quantum arithmetic gates and proposed that these gates can be implemented with the metaplectic anyons.
Topological quantum computation aims to encode quantum information in the nonlocal degrees of freedom of non-Abelian anyons and manipulate it through braiding and fusion operations， offering a promising pathway to fault-tolerant quantum computation. Non-Abelian anyons， with their nontrivial braiding statistics and intrinsic topological fault tolerance， are regarded as a key building block for realizing scalable and decoherence-resistant quantum computing. This review systematically surveys the key developments in anyon physics over the past four decades， from the early theoretical prediction of fractional statistics to direct experimental verification of anyon braiding in fractional quantum Hall states. The physical principles and key findings of essential experimental schemes， including Fabry-Pérot interferometers， Mach-Zehnder interferometers， and anyon colliders， are comprehensively covered. Based on these foundations， the characterization of topological order in even-denominator fractional quantum Hall states， exemplified by the ν=5/2 state， and transport and interferometric probes of non-Abelian statistics are discussed in detail. Furthermore， recent advances in topological quantum states in novel material platforms， including graphene and twisted transition metal dichalcogenides， are reviewed， together with artificial quantum platforms that simulate non-Abelian braiding using superconducting quantum processors. Finally， the key challenges and future directions on the path from anyon physics to scalable topological quantum computing prototype devices are outlined.
This paper proposes a novel architecture for quantum computing based on topological crystalline transistors protected by topological principles. The core concept leverages non-Abelian anyons to implement a topological quantum error correction code, offering a pathway to robust quantum computation resistant to local disturbances. We detail the theoretical framework, focusing on the design principles and mathematical formalism underlying this approach. The architecture utilizes specially engineered topological crystals to confine and manipulate anyons, enabling reliable quantum operations. We present a rigorous analysis of the error correction mechanisms, demonstrating the potential for significantly improved fault tolerance compared to conventional qubit designs. Key aspects include the encoding scheme using braiding operations of anyons, the topological redundancy for error detection and correction, and the resulting improved qubit fidelity. The proposed design represents a significant step towards practical, scalable quantum computers capable of enduring the inherent challenges of quantum decoherence. The presented model highlights the crucial role of topological protection in realizing a stable and reliable quantum computing platform. Our focus is on the theoretical development and the underlying mathematical structure of this approach, laying the groundwork for future experimental investigations.
A paradigm to build a quantum computer, based on topological invariants is highlighted. The identities in the ensemble of knots, links and braids originally discovered in relation to topological quantum field theory are shown: how they define Artin braid group -- the mathematical basis of topological quantum computation (TQC). Vector spaces of TQC correspond to associated strings of particle interactions, and TQC operates its calculations on braided strings of special physical quasiparticles -- anyons -- with non-Abelian statistics. The physical platform of TQC is to use the topological quantum numbers of such small groups of anyons as qubits and to perform operations on these qubits by exchanging the anyons, both within the groups that form the qubits and, for multi-qubit gates, between groups. By braiding two or more anyons, they acquire up a topological phase or Berry phase similar to that found in the Aharonov-Bohm effect. Topological matter such as fractional quantum Hall systems and novel discovered topological insulators open the way to form system of anyons -- Majorana fermions -- with the unique property of encoding and processing quantum information in a naturally fault-tolerant way. In the topological insulators, due to its fundamental attribute of topological surface state occurrence of the bound, Majorana fermions are generated at its heterocontact with superconductors. One of the key operations of TQC -- braiding of non-Abelian anyons: it is illustrated how it can be implemented in one-dimensional topological isolator wire networks.