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Journal of the European Optical Society Rapid Publications

Lasers, photon statistics, photon-correlation spectroscopy and subsequent applications

Roy Pike

Published Jan 1, 2010• 13 citations
Publisher

Abstract

A review is given of developments in the theory and application of the quantum statistics of visible-light photons, particularly of scattered laser light, over the fifty years since Maiman’s publication of the first working laser. Some introductory pre-laser historical background to photon statistics is included and details are given of research and commercial developments in the field conducted in the author’s laboratory in the UK over the period. The resulting emergence of photon statistics and photon-correlation spectroscopy as widely used techniques for non-invasive measurements of diffusion and velocity in many present-day areas of science and industry is described.

DOI
10.2971/jeos.2010.10047s

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A review is given of developments in the theory and application of the quantum statistics of visible-light photons, particularly of scattered laser light, over the fifty years since Maiman’s publication of the first working laser. Some introductory pre-laser historical background to photon statistics is included and details are given of research and commercial developments in the field conducted in the author’s laboratory in the UK over the period. The resulting emergence of photon statistics and photon-correlation spectroscopy as widely used techniques for non-invasive measurements of diffusion and velocity in many present-day areas of science and industry is described.
Photon statistics is a branch of physics that involves observing the behavior of single or a small number of photons and then aggregating the results through statistical averaging. This process is essential to obtain meaningful and reliable data, especially in quantum optics research. Photon statistics provides valuable information about correlations in the electromagnetic field and characteristics of the type of light being measured. For example, second-order correlation function obtained via Hanbury Brown and Twiss experiment is the fundamental way to differentiate between coherent, chaotic and quantum light. Moreover, extensive investigations into the quantum properties of light resulted in significant progress that allows for precise control of quantum optical systems and sets the stage for genuine quantum engineering. This progress extends to applications in confirming the generation of entangled photons and exploring their properties for various purposes. The non-classical correlation between the entangled photons has resulted in various quantum optical techniques that enable the practical implementation of conceptual experiments that probe the core principles of quantum theory. This enhanced control over quantum phenomena offers exciting opportunities to explore novel information-processing approaches, with the potential to revolutionize technologies rooted in quantum information science. Driven by the significance and pivotal role of photon statistics, our research pursuits were directed toward two specific domains: the characterization of nanolasers and the characterization of time-bin entangled photons. In the first segment, we delve into the realm of metallic coaxial nanolasers, renowned for their intriguing threshold-less lasing behavior. Through comprehensive photon statistics analysis, we seek to unravel the coherence properties inherent in these nanolasers. Our focus also lies on understanding the elusive threshold-less operation, which has remained a subject of debate and intrigue. To evaluate this unique lasing characteristic, we conduct rigorous second-order coherence measurements alongside time-resolved second-order correlation analyses. The second segment of this study ventures into the generation and characterization of high-dimensional time-bin entangled states, a critical resource for quantum technological applications. We simulate a synthetic photonic lattice by employing a coupled fiber-loop system to perform various quantum walk schemes to generate and process high-dimensional time-bin entangled states. Our investigation focuses on the quantum interference phenomena through detailed photon statistics analysis, with an emphasis on their applications across diverse quantum technologies. Through these two interconnected research endeavors, this thesis demonstrates the profound significance of photon statistics as a versatile tool, bridging classical and quantum realms, and paving the way for advancements in diverse applications, ranging from nanolasers to quantum technologies.
The field of quantum optics has progressed rapidly in the last twenty five years with the advent of the laser. Over much of this period the phenomena studied could be described adequately by semiclassical treatments. Quite recently however, there has been a revival of interest in genuinely quantum mechanical effects. The Malvern Symposium of December 1985 brought together world experts for a meeting which concentrated largely on these quantum effects. The presentations in this unique meeting combine review material with the very latest results and so will be of value to students of quantum optics and measurement theory at all levels. The first articles cover the exciting topic of the generation of squeezed states of light in the laboratory, and their possible uses. Experimental success has been long sought and very recently attained. The reader will find presented the state of the art in this field. Next to lasing itself, optical bistability has been the most widely studied phenomenon in quantum optics, largely for its technological promise. However, it also provides a fundamental system to study quuantum effects. Recent theoretical studies of optical bistability with small numbers of atoms are surveyed. In such situations quantum features such as antibunching become significant, and the articles in this volume should be a guide to those venturing into this challenging area. In other articles discussions of fluctuations from other noise sources and instabilities in optical bistabilty are presented in a clear and interesting way. Perhaps the least classical state on quantum optics is that describing a single photon. Recent experiments which produce such states are reviewed. A theoretical review of the photon together with some new material is given which delves deeply into relativistic quantum field theory in order to describe the concept of weakly localised photon states. The material here is very rarely presented in the context of quantum optics. The history of the theory of the quantum fluctuations in a laser is then reviewed. An off-shoot of this theory is the study of quantum chaos in dissipative systems and recent results in this new area are given in a succeeding article. There are further stimulating articles on Rydberg atom systems and quantum electrodynamics. The volume ends with an entertaining and incisive study of quantum measurement problems, such as the Schrodinger cat papadox, using concepts and measuring devices found in quantum optics.other_titles
After 30 years of academic research in cold atom sciences, intensive developments are being conducted to improve the compactness and the reliability of experimental set-ups in order to transfer such devices from laboratory-based research to an operational utilization outside of the laboratory. We will present the long-lasting developments that we have been carrying to provide the first industrial cold-atom absolute gravimeter and the first industrial cold-atom atomic clock. We will present in detail the principles of operation and the main features of our instruments. Their performances in terms of sensitivity, stability and accuracy and the latest results they achieved will be reviewed. We will then discuss their use to support other research activities. One of the key technology elements of such instruments that need to be addressed is the laser system used to cool down and manipulate the atoms. A specific focus on our latest developments in this area in terms of performances will be proposed.
This volume is the fourth in a series of monographs being published under the general title Quantum Electronics: Principles and Applications, and it is intended, the preface says, to call the attention of researchers engaged in light scattering experiments to the new techniques of photon counting and light beating spectroscopy. Researchers so engaged are already likely to be familiar with the excellent review articles of Jakeman and Pike on the former and Cummins and Swinney on the latter, and they will find little further enlightenment on these subjects here.
Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is one of the core research fields in the larger paradigm of Quantum Computing (also known alternatively as Quantum Information). In recent years, researchers have taken deep interest in QML, given the potential time and cost advantages that solutions to real-life problems using QML algorithms provide, in comparison to their classical (or digital) machine learning equivalents. This is still a very new and exciting area of research with new algorithms and their uses being developed almost every other day. Deep research interest in this area has picked up only in the past 5–6 years. Given the background, this paper focuses on studying Scopus and Web of Science databases for the past 6 years (2014–2019) to identify various publication trends in the areas of Quantum Machine Learning. The authors have done an in-depth study of the Scopus and Web of Science publication data pertaining to this area and have come up with interesting insights. The survey covers 276 publications in Scopus and 154 publications in Web of Science. From the Scopus database, it is found that there has been a consistent growth in the number of publications in this period. Four research areas, namely, Physics, Astronomy, Computer Science, and Mathematics, have contributed 68.1% of the research publications. The USA leads the top 10 countries with nearly half (49.2%) of the research publications. A total of 148 patents have been published with 94 of these being published in the last four years (2016–2019). This essentially translates to one patent for every two publications. The Web of Science database, though bringing out 154 publications in the period, shows similar trends across the metrics. We have carried out a comparative study of some of the metrics in Scopus and Web of Science databases. Overall the study identifies the top 10 Institutions, authors, and research journals.