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Contemporary Physics

Schrödinger's cat and her laboratory cousins

A. J. Leggett

Published Nov 1, 1984• 119 citations
Publisher

Abstract

In this paper I first briefly review the apparently bizarre consequences of attempting to apply quantum mechanics consistently to macroscopic bodies in certain kinds of situations (the ‘Schrödinger's Cat’ paradox). The paradox results from the assumption that the linear superpositions of macroscopically distinct states, which are unambiguously predicted by the formalism, do indeed exist in nature. Until recently, this assumption was experimentally untested. However, recent advances in techniques of microfabrication, cryogenics and noise control have opened up the possibility of indirect and possibly even direct tests, in particular in superconducting systems incorporating Josephson devices. I describe some of these tests, review the current experimental and theoretical situation and discuss the implications of various possible outcomes to the experiments.

DOI
10.1080/00107518408210731

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In this paper I first briefly review the apparently bizarre consequences of attempting to apply quantum mechanics consistently to macroscopic bodies in certain kinds of situations (the ‘Schrödinger's Cat’ paradox). The paradox results from the assumption that the linear superpositions of macroscopically distinct states, which are unambiguously predicted by the formalism, do indeed exist in nature. Until recently, this assumption was experimentally untested. However, recent advances in techniques of microfabrication, cryogenics and noise control have opened up the possibility of indirect and possibly even direct tests, in particular in superconducting systems incorporating Josephson devices. I describe some of these tests, review the current experimental and theoretical situation and discuss the implications of various possible outcomes to the experiments.
In a famous 1935 paper, Erwin Schroedinger pointed out the apparently bizarre consequences which flow from the assumption that the formalism of quantum mechanics can be extrapolated from the world of electrons and atoms to the level of our own direct consciousness (the “Cat” paradox). In this paper I first discuss some alleged resolutions of the paradox, then point out that the premise is not self-evident, and define a class of alternative (“macrorealistic”) scenarios. I then review the extent to which the experimental predictions of quantum mechanics are currently tested in the direction of the everyday world, and explain a crucial test, yet to be performed, of these predictions vis-a-vis those of macrorealism.
This paper reviews and suggests a resolution of the problem of definite outcomes of measurement. This problem, also known as ‘Schrodinger’s cat’, has long posed an apparent paradox because the state resulting from a measurement appears to be a quantum superposition in which the detector is in two macroscopically distinct states (alive and dead in the case of the cat) simultaneously. Many alternative interpretations of the quantum mathematical formalism, and several alternative modifications of the theory, have been proposed to resolve this problem, but no consensus has formed supporting any one of them. Applying standard quantum theory to the measurement state, together with the analysis and results of decades of nonlocality experiments with pairs of entangled systems, this paper shows the entangled measurement state is not a paradoxical macroscopic superposition of states. It is instead a phase-dependent superposition of correlations between states of the subsystems. Thus Schrodinger’s cat is a non-paradoxical ‘macroscopic correlation’ in which one of the two correlated systems happens to be a detector. This insight resolves the problem of definite outcomes but it does not entirely resolve the measurement problem because the entangled state is still reversible.
I present the motivation for experiments which attempt to generate, and verify the existence of, quantum superpositions of two or more states which are by some reasonable criterion ‘macroscopically’ distinct, and show that various a priori objections to this programme made in the literature are flawed. I review the extent to which such experiments currently exist in the areas of free-space molecular diffraction, magnetic biomolecules, quantum optics and Josephson devices, and sketch possible future lines of development of the programme.
In the Schrödinger-cat gedanken experiment a cat is in a quantum superposition of two macroscopically distinct states, alive and dead.The paradoxical interpretation of quantum mechanics is that the cat is not in one state or the other, alive or dead, immediately prior to its measurement. Because of this apparent defiance of macroscopic reality, quantum superpositions of states macroscopically distinct have generated much interest. Here we address the issue of proving a contradiction with macroscopic reality objectively, through the testable predictions of quantum mechanics. We consider the premises of macroscopic reality (that the ``cat'' is either ``dead'' or ``alive'', the measurement indicating which) and macroscopic locality (that simultaneous measurements some distance away cannot induce the macroscopic change, ``dead'' to ``alive'' and vice versa, to the ``cat''). The predictions of quantum mechanics for certain states, generated using states exhibiting continuous variable entanglement, are shown to be incompatible with the predictions of all theories based on this dual premise. Our proof is along the lines of Bell's theorem, but where all relevant measurements give macroscopically distinct results.
I present the motivation for experiments which attempt to generate, and verify the existence of, quantum superpositions of two or more states which are by some reasonable criterion `macroscopically' distinct, and show that various a priori objections to this programme made in the literature are flawed. I review the extent to which such experiments currently exist in the areas of free-space molecular diffraction, magnetic biomolecules, quantum optics and Josephson devices, and sketch possible future lines of development of the programme.
One of the many challenges facing those who would build a quantum computer is how to assemble a large enough group of qubits in a way that would permit useful computation. For this, solid state qubits have a clear advantage, and the natural order already present in a superconductor makes superconducting qubits a logical choice. The challenge for these “macroscopic” superconducting qubits is to achieve the required internal coherence between states in a single qubit in the face of interactions with the environment. Results of recent experiments at Stony Brook will be presented that demonstrate one can, in fact, produce a coherent superposition of flux states in SQUIDs (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices). This coherence in SQUIDs is the strongest test to date of the predictions of quantum mechanics in a macroscopic system, e.g. Schrodinger’s cat.