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Physical Review

Proof That Probability Density Approaches |ψ|2 in Causal Interpretation of the Quantum Theory

David Böhm

Published Jan 15, 1953• 226 citations
Publisher

Abstract

In two previous papers a causal interpretation of the quantum theory was developed which involved the hypothesis that a quantum-mechanical system contains a precisely defined particle variable x but that, at present, we are restricted to calculating the probability density $P(\mathrm{x}, t)$ that the particle is at the position x. It was shown that the assumption that $P(\mathrm{x}, t)={|\ensuremath{\psi}(\mathrm{x}, t)|}^{2}$ is consistent, in the sense that if it holds initially, the equations of motion of the particles will cause this relation to be maintained for all time. In this paper, we extend the theory by showing that as a result of random collisions, an arbitrary probability density will ultimately decay into one with a density of ${|\ensuremath{\psi}(\mathrm{x}, t)|}^{2}$. Since all quantum-mechanical experiments to date have been concerned with statistical ensembles of systems that have been colliding with other systems for a very long time, it is therefore inevitable that as we draw samples from such ensembles, the probability density of systems with particles at the point x will be equal to ${|\ensuremath{\psi}(\mathrm{x}, t)|}^{2}$.In the previous papers we also pointed out that, within the conceptual framework of the causal interpretation, it was possible to suggest mathematical theories more general than are permitted by the usual interpretation and that these more general theories might be needed in the domain of ${10}^{\ensuremath{-}13}$ cm, where present theories seem to fail. However, if these more general theories should apply at the level of ${10}^{\ensuremath{-}13}$ cm, then there would be a tendency to create discrepancies between $P$ and ${|\ensuremath{\psi}|}^{2}$, a tendency whose cumulative effects should be felt even at the atomic level, where the more general theory ought to approach the usual theory. However, because those discrepancies have been shown to die out as a result of collisions, we can expect that under normal conditions the difference between $P$ and ${|\ensuremath{\psi}|}^{2}$ would be negligible. Conditions are suggested, however, in which this difference might be appreciable, and experiments are indicated which might be able to test for the existence of such discrepancies.

DOI
10.1103/physrev.89.458

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Historical remarks The quantum mechanical formalism discovered by Heisenberg [Heis 25] an Schrödinger [Schrö 26] in 1925 was first interpreted in a statistical sense by Born [Born 26]. The formal expressions p (φ, a i ) = |(φ,φ ai )| 2 , i ∈ N, were interpreted as the probabilities that a quantum system S with preparation φ possesses the value a i that belongs to the state φ ai . This original Born interpretation, which was formulated for scattering processes, was, however, not tenable in the general case. The probabilities must not be related to the system S in state φ, since in the preparation φ the value a i of an observable A is in general not subjectively unknown but objectively undecided. Instead, one has to interpret the formal expressions p ( a i , a i ) as the probabilities of finding the value a i after measurement of the observable A of the system S with preparation φ. In this improved version, the statistical or Born interpretation is used in the present-day literature. On the one hand, the statistical (Born) interpretation of quantum mechanics is usually taken for granted, and the formalism of quantum mechanics is considered as a theory that provides statistical predictions referring to a sufficiently large ensemble of identically prepared systems S (φ) after the measurement of the observable in question. On the other hand, the meaning of the same formal terms p (φ, a i ) for an individual system is highly problematic.

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In two previous papers a causal interpretation of the quantum theory was developed which involved the hypothesis that a quantum-mechanical system contains a precisely defined particle variable x but that, at present, we are restricted to calculating the probability density P(x,t)P(\mathrm{x}, t)P(x,t) that the particle is at the position x. It was shown that the assumption that P(x,t)=∣\ensuremathψ(x,t)∣2P(\mathrm{x}, t)={|\ensuremath{\psi}(\mathrm{x}, t)|}^{2}P(x,t)=∣\ensuremathψ(x,t)∣2 is consistent, in the sense that if it holds initially, the equations of motion of the particles will cause this relation to be maintained for all time. In this paper, we extend the theory by showing that as a result of random collisions, an arbitrary probability density will ultimately decay into one with a density of ∣\ensuremathψ(x,t)∣2{|\ensuremath{\psi}(\mathrm{x}, t)|}^{2}∣\ensuremathψ(x,t)∣2. Since all quantum-mechanical experiments to date have been concerned with statistical ensembles of systems that have been colliding with other systems for a very long time, it is therefore inevitable that as we draw samples from such ensembles, the probability density of systems with particles at the point x will be equal to ∣\ensuremathψ(x,t)∣2{|\ensuremath{\psi}(\mathrm{x}, t)|}^{2}∣\ensuremathψ(x,t)∣2.In the previous papers we also pointed out that, within the conceptual framework of the causal interpretation, it was possible to suggest mathematical theories more general than are permitted by the usual interpretation and that these more general theories might be needed in the domain of 10\ensuremath−13{10}^{\ensuremath{-}13}10\ensuremath−13 cm, where present theories seem to fail. However, if these more general theories should apply at the level of 10\ensuremath−13{10}^{\ensuremath{-}13}10\ensuremath−13 cm, then there would be a tendency to create discrepancies between PPP and ∣\ensuremathψ∣2{|\ensuremath{\psi}|}^{2}∣\ensuremathψ∣2, a tendency whose cumulative effects should be felt even at the atomic level, where the more general theory ought to approach the usual theory. However, because those discrepancies have been shown to die out as a result of collisions, we can expect that under normal conditions the difference between PPP and ∣\ensuremathψ∣2{|\ensuremath{\psi}|}^{2}∣\ensuremathψ∣2 would be negligible. Conditions are suggested, however, in which this difference might be appreciable, and experiments are indicated which might be able to test for the existence of such discrepancies.
Quantum mechanics has achieved unparalleled success as an operational theory, describing a wide range of experiments to remarkable accuracy. However, the physical foundations on which it rests remain as puzzling as they were a century ago, and a concise statement of the physical principles that underlie quantum mechanics is still outstanding. One promising approach holds that these principles should be formulated in terms of information, since many of the counter-intuitive effects in quantum theory concern questions such as what one can know about a quantum system and how the information encoded therein can be processed and distributed between parties. Another challenging feature of quantum theory is its incompatibility with the other cornerstone of modern physics, general relativity. In order to reconcile the two, one must identify and retain only the essential concepts and principles of each theory, and in the case of general relativity, causality has been identified as such a concept. This raises the question of how our classical understanding of causality must change when quantum theory is taken into account. In order to address these questions about information, knowledge and causality, I turn to the framework of causal models. In classical statistics, causal models explain the relations among a set of variables in terms of causal influences, which makes them a powerful tool for structuring our knowledge about complex systems and developing strategies for interacting with them. More importantly, the framework provides the conceptual underpinnings and mathematical methods for addressing questions about causation, information and knowledge in a rigorous manner. In this thesis, I develop a version of the classical causal models framework that is compatible with quantum theory and explore its physical implications. \n \n \nA first step is to define quantum versions of fundamental elements such as variables, conditionals and belief propagation rules. This allows one to consider the question of what one can come to know about a quantum variable from the point of view of causal modelling. The conditionals relating quantum variables are found to have a richer structure than their classical counterparts, which can be exploited for the task of discerning causal relations given limited data -- a central problem in classical causal modelling. The mathematical properties of quantum conditionals also establish a correspondence between various classes of two-party correlations, such as bound and distillable entanglement, and the types of causal structures that can give rise to them, which may become a useful tool for entanglement theory and quantum information processing. In the context of open quantum systems dynamics, quantum causal models provide a clear physical explanation of not completely positive maps and, more broadly, of non-Markovian quantum dynamics. Finally, I consider the possibility of non-classical effects in the way that different causal mechanisms are combined -- that is, non-classical causal structures. For the simple case of two causally ordered variables, I propose indicators that witness different classes of combinations of causal mechanisms, including a non-classical mixture, and describe an experiment realizing examples of the different classes. \n \n \nAs these results illustrate, the framework of quantum causal models provides both greater conceptual clarity and a comprehensive mathematical formalism for studying a diverse set of problems, ranging from foundational questions to applications in open systems dynamics and the exploration of non-classical causal structures, which are likely to feature in a future theory of quantum gravity. The material presented in this thesis is intended as a foundation and inspiration for further applications of quantum causal models.
In this paper, we propose a physical model leading to the causal interpretation of the quantum theory. In this model, a set of fields which are equivalent in many ways to a conserved fluid, with density ${|\ensuremath{\psi}|}^{2}$, and local stream velocity, $\frac{d\ensuremath{\xi}}{\mathrm{dt}}=\frac{\ensuremath{\nabla}S}{m}$, act on a particle-like inhomogeneity which moves with the local stream velocity of the equivalent fluid. By introducing the hypothesis of a very irregular and effectively random fluctuation in the motions of the fluid, we are able to prove that an arbitrary probability density ultimately decays into ${|\ensuremath{\psi}|}^{2}$. Thus, we answer an important objection to the causal interpretation, made by Pauli and others. This result is extended to the Dirac equation and to the many-particle problem.
Quantum mechanics is basically a mathematical recipe on how to construct physical models. Historically its origin and main domain of application has been in the microscopic regime, although it strictly seen constitutes a general mathematical framework not limited to this regime. Since it is a statistical theory, the meaning and role of probabilities in it need to be defined and understood in order to gain an understanding of the predictions and validity of quantum mechanics. The interpretational problems of quantum mechanics are also connected with the interpretation of the concept of probability. In this thesis the use of probability theory as extended logic, in particular in the way it was presented by E. T. Jaynes, will be central. With this interpretation of probabilities they become a subjective notion, always dependent on one's state of knowledge or the context in which they are assigned, which has consequences on how things are to be viewed, understood and tackled in quantum mechanics. For instance, the statistical operator or density operator, is usually defined in terms of probabilities and therefore also needs to be updated when the probabilities are updated by acquisition of additional data. Furthermore, it is a context dependent notion, meaning, e.g., that two observers will in general assign different statistical operators to the same phenomenon, which is demonstrated in the papers of the thesis. It is also presented an alternative and conceptually clear approach to the problematic notion of "probabilities of probabilities", which is related to such things as probability distributions on statistical operators. In connection to this, we consider concrete numerical applications of Bayesian quantum state assignment methods to a three-level quantum system, where prior knowledge and various kinds of measurement data are encoded into a statistical operator, which can then be used for deriving probabilities of other measurements. The thesis also offers examples of an alternative quantum state assignment technique, using maximum entropy methods, which in some cases are compared with the Bayesian quantum state assignment methods. Finally, the interesting and important problem whether the statistical operator, or more generally quantum mechanics, gives a complete description of "objective physical reality" is considered. A related concern is here the possibility of finding a "local hidden-variable theory" underlying the quantum mechanical description. There have been attempts to prove that such a theory cannot be constructed, where the most well-known impossibility proof claiming to show this was given by J. S. Bell. In connection to this, the thesis presents an idea for an interpretation or alternative approach to quantum mechanics based on the concept of space-time.
A new theorem on random walks suggest some possible revisions of the foundations of Quantum Mechanics. This is presented below in the simplified framework of the description of the evolution of a material point in space. Grossly speaking, it is shown that the probabilities generated by normalizing the square modulus of a sum of probability amplitudes, in the setup of Quantum Mechanics, becomes asymptotically close (under the appropriate limiting conditions) to the probabilities generated by the usual causal processes of Classical Mechanics. This limiting coincidence has a series of interesting potential applications. In particular it allows us to reintroduce the concept of causality within the core of Quantum Mechanics. Moreover, it suggests, among other consequences, that gravitational interaction may not even exist. Even though the interpretations of Quantum Mechanics which follow from this mathematical result may seem to bring some unexpected innovations in the context of theoretical physics, there is an obvious necessity to study its theoretical impact on Quantum Mechanics. The first steps toward this aim are taken in the present article.
The usual interpretation of the quantum theory is self-consistent, but it involves an assumption that cannot be tested experimentally, viz., that the most complete possible specification of an individual system is in terms of a wave function that determines only probable results of actual measurement processes. The only way of investigating the truth of this assumption is by trying to find some other interpretation of the quantum theory in terms of at present "hidden" variables, which in principle determine the precise behavior of an individual system, but which are in practice averaged over in measurements of the types that can now be carried out. In this paper and in a subsequent paper, an interpretation of the quantum theory in terms of just such "hidden" variables is suggested. It is shown that as long as the mathematical theory retains its present general form, this suggested interpretation leads to precisely the same results for all physical processes as does the usual interpretation. Nevertheless, the suggested interpretation provides a broader conceptual framework than the usual interpretation, because it makes possible a precise and continuous description of all processes, even at the quantum level. This broader conceptual framework allows more general mathematical formulations of the theory than those allowed by the usual interpretation. Now, the usual mathematical formulation seems to lead to insoluble difficulties when it is extrapolated into the domain of distances of the order of ${10}^{\ensuremath{-}13}$ cm or less. It is therefore entirely possible that the interpretation suggested here may be needed for the resolution of these difficulties. In any case, the mere possibility of such an interpretation proves that it is not necessary for us to give up a precise, rational, and objective description of individual systems at a quantum level of accuracy.
Historical remarks The quantum mechanical formalism discovered by Heisenberg [Heis 25] an Schrödinger [Schrö 26] in 1925 was first interpreted in a statistical sense by Born [Born 26]. The formal expressions p (φ, a i ) = |(φ,φ ai )| 2 , i ∈ N, were interpreted as the probabilities that a quantum system S with preparation φ possesses the value a i that belongs to the state φ ai . This original Born interpretation, which was formulated for scattering processes, was, however, not tenable in the general case. The probabilities must not be related to the system S in state φ, since in the preparation φ the value a i of an observable A is in general not subjectively unknown but objectively undecided. Instead, one has to interpret the formal expressions p ( a i , a i ) as the probabilities of finding the value a i after measurement of the observable A of the system S with preparation φ. In this improved version, the statistical or Born interpretation is used in the present-day literature. On the one hand, the statistical (Born) interpretation of quantum mechanics is usually taken for granted, and the formalism of quantum mechanics is considered as a theory that provides statistical predictions referring to a sufficiently large ensemble of identically prepared systems S (φ) after the measurement of the observable in question. On the other hand, the meaning of the same formal terms p (φ, a i ) for an individual system is highly problematic.