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Physical Review A

Calculating the quantum characteristic function and the photon-number generating function in quantum optics

Edward B. Rockower

Published Jun 1, 1988• 7 citations
Publisher

Abstract

A new operator derivation of the relation giving the photon-number generating function, G(\ensuremath{\gamma}), in terms of the quantum characteristic function, C(\ensuremath{\xi},${\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}$), is presented. The inverse problem is then solved, calculating C(\ensuremath{\xi},${\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}$) directly from G(\ensuremath{\gamma}). Because G(\ensuremath{\gamma}) contains less phase information than C(\ensuremath{\xi},${\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}$), we can either assume that the field has a completely random phase (e.g., a stationary field) or be content with calculating the phase average of C(\ensuremath{\xi},${\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}$). We then derive an expression giving G(\ensuremath{\gamma}) for the superposition of two arbitrary, independent fields in terms of the individual G(\ensuremath{\gamma})'s for each (stationary) field. A number of examples illustrate the methods, including a determination of the quantum characteristic function for a field with K-distributed amplitude fluctuations.

DOI
10.1103/physreva.37.4309

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A new operator derivation of the relation giving the photon-number generating function, G(\ensuremath{\gamma}), in terms of the quantum characteristic function, C(\ensuremath{\xi},\ensuremathξ∗{\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}\ensuremathξ∗), is presented. The inverse problem is then solved, calculating C(\ensuremath{\xi},\ensuremathξ∗{\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}\ensuremathξ∗) directly from G(\ensuremath{\gamma}). Because G(\ensuremath{\gamma}) contains less phase information than C(\ensuremath{\xi},\ensuremathξ∗{\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}\ensuremathξ∗), we can either assume that the field has a completely random phase (e.g., a stationary field) or be content with calculating the phase average of C(\ensuremath{\xi},\ensuremathξ∗{\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\mathrm{*}}\ensuremathξ∗). We then derive an expression giving G(\ensuremath{\gamma}) for the superposition of two arbitrary, independent fields in terms of the individual G(\ensuremath{\gamma})'s for each (stationary) field. A number of examples illustrate the methods, including a determination of the quantum characteristic function for a field with K-distributed amplitude fluctuations.
A method is found for calculating the number generating function of a harmonic oscillator density matrix directly from the quantum characteristic function. This technique is used to interpret thermal noise in a model for an optical detector. The results clearly reveal an earlier misinterpretation and emphasise that the terminal noise is a statistically independent amplitude in the detector/harmonic oscillator which is superposed with an amplitude having the same statistical nature as the incident optical field.
The probability of an atom undergoing a transition to a given final state by means of two-photon absorption is expressed for arbitrary field states in terms of the second-order normally-ordered field correlation function, evaluated at the position of the atom. In the case of stationary fields, an expression for the absorption rate is found which reduces to a particularly simple form for narrow-bandwidth fields near resonance. The effect of field statistics is illustrated by comparing the absorption rate w2(ch)w_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{(\mathrm{ch})}w2​​(ch) for chaotic or Gaussian light to the rate w2(l)w_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{(l)}w2​​(l) for laser light. The rate for laser light is calculated within the context of a particular model based on the assumption of fixed field amplitude and random frequency modulation, and the chaotic light to which it is compared is assumed to have the same (Lorentzian) power spectrum. When the width ${\ensuremath{\kappa}}_{f}$ of the final atomic level is much greater than the bandwidth bbb of the field, we obtain the previously derived result w2(ch)w2(l)=2\frac{w_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{(\mathrm{ch})}}{w_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{(l)}}=2w2​​(l)w2​​(ch)​=2. When ${\ensuremath{\kappa}}_{f}\ensuremath{\ll}b$, on the other hand, the ratio between the two rates depends on the (mean) frequency of the field, and assumes the (maximum) value 4 when the field is exactly on resonance.
The evaluation of a photon-pair source employs characteristic metrics like the photon-pair generation rate, heralding efficiency, and second-order correlation function, all of which are determined by the photon number distribution of the source. The photon number distribution, however, can be altered due to spectral or spatial filtering and optical losses, leading to changes in the above characteristics. This paper theoretically describes the effects of different filterings, losses, and noise counts on the photon number distribution and related characteristics. From the theoretical description, an analytic expression for the effective mode number of the joint spectral density is also derived. Compared with previous methods for estimating the photon number distribution and characteristics, an improved methodology is introduced along with a suitable metric of accuracy for estimating the photon number distribution, focusing on photon-pair sources. We discuss the accuracy of the calculated characteristics from the estimated (or reconstructed) photon number distribution through repeated simulations and bootstrapped experimental data.
The isolation usually encountered in optics between the part of a field that is of interest and its source motivates the consideration of a radiation mode weakly coupled to a quantum-mechanical source. After the introduction of some refinements into the quantum mechanics of a damped radiation mode, the field is expressed as the sum of two parts, one due to the source (the source field) and the other due to the loss mechanism (the "vacuum" field). The characteristic function for the field is calculated up to second order in perturbation theory. This function is then compared with the characteristic function for the field in the presence of a classical source. A method is exhibited by which a classical source can be found such that the two characteristic functions are identical when averaged over a half cycle. In particular, the two sources yield the same expectation values for the instantaneous amplitude and energy of the field. The description of the equivalent classical source must be given in statistical terms, in general, and requires only a knowledge of 〈S(0)(t)〉〈{S}^{(0)}(t)〉〈S(0)(t)〉 and 〈S(0)(t1)S(0)(t2)〉〈{S}^{(0)}({t}_{1}){S}^{(0)}({t}_{2})〉〈S(0)(t1​)S(0)(t2​)〉, where S(0){S}^{(0)}S(0) is the dipole-moment operator of the quantum-mechanical source unperturbed by the mode under consideration (but otherwise arbitrarily complex, with the possibility of strong coupling to other modes). The theory is illustrated by a consideration of several simple sources---a two-level system, a harmonic oscillator, and a blackbody---for which equivalent classical sources are found. The two-time correlation functions for the field obtained with the two types of sources are compared and are shown to be the same up to first order in $\ensuremath{\xi}\ensuremath{\tau}$, where $\ensuremath{\tau}$ is the difference between the two times and $\ensuremath{\xi}$ is the inverse of the field relaxation time; the physical meaning of the second-order difference in the correlation functions is discussed. A limiting process, in which both the coupling to the source and the damping become small, is suggested as a method of adapting the results to free fields, but it is pointed out that for discussion of a single mode, a free field is physically less satisfactory than a damped field. It is concluded that, within a reasonable approximation scheme, the source field may be described classically (the "vacuum" field furnishing all the necessary quantum-mechanical properties of the total field).
Quantum statistical properties of general superpositions of coherent states of the type Nα,βα+eiξβ have been studied. Formulas for fluctuations (variances) of the coordinate and momentum quadratures and fluctuations of the number of photons in these states are obtained. The amplitude Nα,βnαeiφ+eiξnβeiφ,φ=φα=φβ and phase Nα,βneiφα+eiξneiφβ,n=nα=nβ superpositions of coherent states are considered separately. In the case of amplitude superpositions, a field under certain conditions occurs in a quadrature-squeezed state. At the same time, the photon distribution in the case of amplitude superpositions is always super-Poissonian. In the case of phase superpositions, a field under certain conditions occurs in quadrature-squeezed states for small average numbers of photons. For certain parameters of coherent states, the photon statistics in phase superpositions is sub-Poissonian. Using amplitude superpositions, it is possible to generate a microscopic electromagnetic field with the average photon number below or on the order of unity, as well as mesoscopic and even macroscopic fields with arbitrary large average photon numbers, characterized by significant quadrature squeezing. Using phase superpositions, it is possible to create under certain conditions the electromagnetic field states with sub-Poissonian statistics (squeezed distribution of photon numbers) for an arbitrary large average photon number. Expressions for a ‘strict’ coordinate–momentum uncertainty relation (Cauchy inequality) are obtained and analysed in cases of general, amplitude and phase superpositions of coherent states.