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American Journal of Physics

Synthesis of the Planck and Bohr formulations of the correspondence principle

Ghazi Q. Hassoun, Donald H. Kobe

Published Jul 1, 1989• 25 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Planck formulated the correspondence principle between quantum and classical mechanics as the limit in which the Planck constant h goes to zero. Bohr formulated the correspondence principle to be the limit of large quantum numbers. For three common quantum mechanical systems it is shown that in order for eigenvalues of quantum mechanical observables to have meaningful classical limits, it is necessary to take the double limit as both the Planck constant goes to zero and the quantum number goes to infinity, subject to the constraint that their product is equal to an appropriate classical action. This synthesis of the Bohr and Planck formulations of the correspondence principle is also used to show that the quantum mechanical transition frequency between adjacent levels approaches the corresponding classical frequency. The features these systems have in common in their classical limit are explained by general considerations of the classical limit of the Schrödinger equation.

DOI
10.1119/1.15933

Related papers

Understanding the relation between classical and quantum mechanics: prospects for undergraduate teaching

Marco Di Mauro, A. Drago, Adele Naddeo

Abstract Classical and quantum mechanics are two very different theories, each describing the world within its own range of validity. It is often stated that classical mechanics emerges from quantum mechanics in a certain limit. This is known as the correspondence principle. According to Planck’s version of the correspondence principle, classical mechanics is recovered when the limit in which a dimensionless parameter containing Planck’s constant h goes to zero is taken, while Bohr’s version entails taking the limit of large quantum numbers. However, despite what is usually stated in textbooks, the relation between the two theories is much more complex to state and understand. Here we deal with this issue by analysing some key examples, in some of which also the analogously subtle relation between wave and geometric optics is considered. Implications for quantum mechanics teaching at undergraduate level are carefully discussed.

Journal of Physics Conference Series•Mar 1, 2024•0 citations

A Simple Mathematical Formulation of the Correspondence Principle

J. Bernal, A. Martín-Ruiz, J. C. García-Melgarejo

In this paper we suggest a simple mathematical procedure to derive the classical probability density of quantum systems via Bohr’s correspondence principle. Using Fourier expansions for the classical and quantum distributions, we assume that the Fourier coefficients coincide for the case of large quantum number. We illustrate the procedure by analyzing the classical limit for the quantum harmonic oscillator and the particle in a box, although the method is quite general. We find, in an analytical fashion, the classical distribution arising from the quantum one as the zeroth order term in an expansion in powers of Planck’s constant. We interpret the correction terms as residual quantum effects at the microscopic-macroscopic boundary.

arXiv:1101.1242•Journal of Modern Physics•Jan 1, 2013•17 citations

"The Classical Limit" Is Not One Limit ── Equations, Spectrum, Wavefunction, State: the Separator Is What Is Asked to Become Classical ── [Paper 180]

Yuuki Yamagishi

When someone says take the classical limit, the next question is what is being asked to become classical. Paper 113 wrote that quantum mechanics is a deformation of classical mechanics by Planck's constant and that letting that constant go to zero returns the classical algebra. That is a statement about structures. This paper asks the neighbouring question: does the behaviour return? They are different sentences, and the second has several answers. NO NEW MATHEMATICAL THEOREM AND NO NEW PHYSICAL LAW IS CLAIMED: Ehrenfest's theorem, Bohr's correspondence principle, the WKB approximation, and the collapse and revival of wavepackets are all standard, and no interpretation of quantum mechanics is judged. Every number was computed for this paper, and no matrix result is quoted unless doubling the basis left it alone. First, the equations. The rate of change of the mean momentum is exactly minus the mean of the force, while the classical equation uses the force at the mean position. These agree exactly when the force is linear, that is when the potential is at most quadratic. For a Gaussian packet of mean seven tenths and standard deviation thirty-five hundredths, the gap was zero for the quadratic, one hundred and twenty-two and a half thousandths for the cubic, and twenty-five thousand seven hundred and twenty-five hundred-thousandths for the quartic, matching the closed forms exactly. What makes the gap is the width of the packet, and the width is where Planck's constant enters, so the gap is proportional to it. At a fixed time the classical equation is therefore recovered, and that proviso is worth remembering. Second, the spectrum. Bohr said that for large quantum number the frequency radiated on a jump down by one approaches the classical orbital frequency. In hydrogen the ratio of the two runs three, then one and four hundred and six thousandths, then one and fifteen thousandths at a hundred, and one and one and a half thousandths at a thousand, approaching one like one plus three over twice the quantum number. Not once does Planck's constant appear in that ratio. The correspondence principle is not a statement that the constant is small but that the quantum number is large, a different sentence from the first. Nor is it about a single frequency: a jump down by two corresponds to the second harmonic of the orbit and by three to the third, with ratios that were measured separately. Third, the wavefunction. Take the Bohr-Sommerfeld condition with the added one half, the Maslov index, and apply it in the same form to two wells. For the harmonic oscillator the recipe agrees with the matrix eigenvalues to zero error at every level tested, the ground state included. For the quartic well it is never exact, with a relative error of about eighteen hundredths at the ground state falling to about two hundred-thousandths at the fortieth level. Semiclassical is not one condition either: the same recipe means different things in different wells. Fourth, and this is the core. Place a packet at rest in the quartic well and integrate the classical orbit with my own Runge-Kutta scheme. Holding the time fixed and lowering Planck's constant, the difference dies in proportion to it: halving the constant halves the difference, in agreement with the closed form of the first part. Holding the constant fixed and waiting instead, the swing collapses from its full value to about two ten-thousandths, and then comes back to about two thirds of its original size much later, while the classical orbit has not moved at all. So this is not a small correction to an orbit. Both the collapse and the revival come from the level spacing not being uniform, and nothing on the classical side answers to that. Fix the time and take the constant to zero and the answer is classical; fix the constant and take the time to infinity and it is not. This pattern is not new to this corpus. Paper 154 takes two limits failing to commute as its subject and sets zero against a definite magnetisation in the Curie-Weiss magnet. All that is added here is that the same pattern appears at the quantum-classical boundary. Fifth, the survival time is finite all the same. Measuring how long the swing takes to fall below a tenth of its initial value gives values that grow steadily as the constant shrinks, each surviving a doubling of the basis to eleven decimal places. It grows, and only as a power law. Making the constant small postpones the classical orbit's failure rather than preventing it. And Ehrenfest time is itself one name for two behaviours: the short logarithmic one often quoted belongs to chaotic systems, where the spreading is exponential, while this well is integrable and measurement gives a power. The exponent measured here is one packet in one well, not a derived exponent. A census. The equations become classical by Ehrenfest, exactly up to quadratic and spoiled by the width beyond. The spectrum becomes classical by Bohr's correspondence, driven by large quantum number and not by Planck's constant. The wavefunction becomes classical by WKB, exact in one well and asymptotic in another. The state becomes classical by decoherence, in which superposition goes. These four are not a staircase of strength: decoherence makes the state classical without making the equations classical, and as Paper 55 wrote a diagonal density matrix does not say which outcome occurs, while conversely the equations can be classical with superposition surviving. What settles it is what is being asked to be classical. Important (scope note): a census of established standard facts (Layer 2). What is not shown: any new mathematical theorem or physical law, none is claimed; any judgement on interpretations of quantum mechanics; any refutation of Paper 113, since this is a brake and not a refutation; and any novelty for the pattern of two limits failing to commute, which Paper 154 already holds. What is added: setting four limits against one separator, what is being asked to become classical; writing the Ehrenfest gap in closed form and confirming its proportionality in numbers; measuring the rate of the correspondence principle and showing that Planck's constant never enters it; placing one WKB recipe side by side where it is exact and where it is only asymptotic; and measuring the collapse and revival to a precision that survives a doubling of the basis. What remains: when someone says take the classical limit, the next question is what is being asked to become classical. The equations, the spectrum, the wavefunction, or the state all go by the same phrase, hold under different conditions and fail in different places. And the algebra returning does not mean the behaviour returns. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- 「古典極限を取る」と言われたら、次に問うべきは「何が古典になれと言われているのか」である。 論文113 は「量子力学は古典力学の ℏ による変形であり、ℏ→0 で古典代数に戻る」と書いた。それは構造についての言明である。本稿は隣の問いを立てる——では振る舞いは戻るのか。二つは別の文であり、後者には答えが複数ある。新しい数学定理も新しい物理法則も主張しない:エーレンフェストの定理、ボーアの対応原理、WKB 近似、波束の崩壊と再生は、いずれも標準的な内容である。また量子力学の解釈を判定しない。⚠️ 数値はすべて自前の計算であり、行列の対角化は基底を倍にして答えが動かないことを確かめてから引用した(動いた値は載せていない)。 第一に、方程式である。運動量の平均の時間変化は −⟨V′(x)⟩ に厳密に等しく、古典の式は −V′(⟨x⟩) である。両者が一致するのは V′ が線形のとき、すなわち V が二次までのときに限る。平均 0.7、標準偏差 0.35 のガウス波束で隔たりを測ると、二次では 0、三次では 0.1225(=σ²)、四次では 0.25725(=3μσ²)とぴたり予測どおりであった(本稿で計算)。⭐ 隔たりを作っているのは波束の幅である。そして幅こそが ℏ の入り口である——最小不確定の波束では σ²=ℏ/2 だから、隔たりは ℏ に比例する(ℏ=1, 0.01, 0.0001 で 1.05, 0.0105, 0.000105)。したがって時刻を固定すれば ℏ→0 で古典の式に戻る。⚠️ この但し書きを覚えておきたい。 第二に、スペクトルである。ボーア(1913, 1920)は、量子数が大きいとき n→n−1 の遷移で放射される振動数が古典の公転振動数に近づくと述べた。水素をリュードベリ単位で書けば遷移振動数は 1/(n−1)²−1/n²、n 番目の準位での古典の公転振動数は 2/n³ である。比は n=2 で 3.0、n=5 で 1.40625、n=10 で 1.17283950617、n=100 で 1.01520253035、n=1000 で 1.0015020025、n=10000 で 1.00015002 となり、近づき方は 1+3/(2n) と桁で一致した(本稿で計算)。⭐⭐ この比のどこにも ℏ が現れていない。対応原理は「ℏ が小さい」という言明ではなく、「量子数が大きい」という言明である——第一の ℏ→0 とは別の文なのである。しかも一本の振動数の話ですらない。n→n−k は公転の第 k 高調波に対応し、n=1000 で k=1,2,3 の比は 1.0015020025、1.00300802005、1.00451806774 であった。対応しているのはフーリエ級数の全体である。 第三に、波動関数である。ボーア=ゾンマーフェルトの量子化条件に 1/2 を加えたもの(マスロフ指数)を、二つの井戸に同じ形で当てる。調和振動子では n=0, 1, 5, 20 のいずれでも WKB の値が行列の固有値と誤差ゼロで一致した——基底状態を含め、どの n でも厳密である。ところが四次の井戸ではどの n でも厳密でなく、相対誤差は n=0 で 1.822×10⁻¹、n=1 で 1.257×10⁻²、n=10 で 3.204×10⁻⁴、n=40 で 2.156×10⁻⁵ と、n とともに改善するだけである(本稿で計算)。⭐ 「準古典」も一つの条件ではない。同じ処方が、井戸によって別のことを意味している。 第四に、これが本稿の芯である。四次の井戸に x=1.5 で静止した波束を置き、古典側は ẍ=−4x³ を自前のルンゲ=クッタ法で解く。時刻を t=2 に固定して ℏ を下げると、差は 0.1762、0.1050、0.0581、0.0307 と ℏ に比例して消える(ℏ を半分にすると差も半分——第一の閉じた形と合う)。⭐⭐ ところが ℏ=0.1 に固定して待つと、振れ幅は 1.5 から潰れていき、t=27.50 で 0.000195 に達し、そして t=199.85 で 0.664054 へ戻ってきた。古典の軌道は潰れも戻りもせず、1.4986 から一度も動いていない。したがってこれは軌道への小さな補正ではない。潰れも再生も、準位の間隔が一様でないことから来る——古典の側には対応するものが何も無い。すなわち、時刻を固定して ℏ→0 とすれば古典に戻り、ℏ を固定して t→∞ とすれば戻らない。二つの極限は順序を持って取られ、順序が答を決める。 ⚠️ この型は本体系の新顔ではない。論文154 が「二つの極限が交換しない」を主題にし、キュリー=ワイス磁石で 0 と 0.957504 を並べている。本稿が加えたのは、同じ型が量子と古典の境目にも現れるということだけである。 第五に、それでも存続時間は有限である。振れ幅が最初の十分の一を切るまでの時間を測ると、ℏ=0.4, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05 に対して 8.160、10.640、14.280、19.200 であった(各行とも基底を倍にして 10⁻¹¹ しか動かない)。伸びるが、伸び方は冪則にとどまる(測った両対数の傾きは ℏ の −0.41 乗)。⭐ ℏ を小さくすることは古典の軌道を延命するのであって、永続させはしない。⚠️ そして「エーレンフェスト時間」もまた一語で二つを指している。文献でよく引かれる log(1/ℏ) という短さはカオス系のものであり、広がりが指数的であることから来る。本稿の井戸は可積分であり、測ると冪則になる。⚠️ 上の指数は一つの波束・一つの井戸についての測定値であって、導出した指数ではない。 点呼をしておく。方程式が古典になるのがエーレンフェストで、二次までは厳密、以遠は幅が壊す。スペクトルが古典になるのがボーアの対応原理で、効くのは大きな量子数であって ℏ ではない。波動関数が古典になるのが WKB・準古典で、井戸によって厳密でも漸近でもある。状態が古典になるのがデコヒーレンスで、重ね合わせは消える。⚠️ 四つは強さの階段ではない。デコヒーレンスは状態を古典的にするが方程式を古典化せず(論文55 が書いたとおり、対角的な密度行列はどの結果が実現するかを語らない)、逆に方程式が古典的でも重ね合わせは残りうる。決めているのは、何に対して古典であれと言っているかである。 重要(射程):確立された標準的事実の点呼(第2層)。示さないこと:新しい数学定理や物理法則(一つもない)/量子力学の解釈の判定(していない)/論文113 への反論(ブレーキであって反論ではない)/「二つの極限が交換しない」という型の新規性(論文154 が既に持っている)。加えたもの:四つを「何が古典になれと言われているか」という一つの分離子に並べたこと、エーレンフェストの隔たりを閉じた形で書いて ℏ 比例を数で確かめたこと、対応原理の近づき方を測

•Aug 25, 2026•0 citations

Three Puzzles about Bohr's Correspondence Principle

Alisa Bokulich

Niels Bohr’s “correspondence principle” is typically believed to be the requirement that in the limit of large quantum numbers (n→∞) there is a statistical agreement between the quantum and classical frequencies. A closer reading of Bohr’s writings on the correspondence principle, however, reveals that this interpretation is mistaken. Specifically, Bohr makes the following three puzzling claims: First, he claims that the correspondence principle applies to small quantum numbers as well as large (while the statistical agreement of frequencies is only for large n); second, he claims that the correspondence principle is a law of quantum theory; and third, Bohr argues that formal apparatus of matrix mechanics (the new quantum theory) can be thought of as a precise formulation of the correspondence principle. With further textual evidence, I offer an alternative interpretation of the correspondence principle in terms of what I call Bohr’s selection rule. I conclude by showing how this new interpretation of the correspondence principle readily makes sense of Bohr’s three puzzling claims.

•Aug 1, 2009•4 citations

The correspondence principle revisited

Richard L. Liboff

The correspondence principle addresses the connection between classical and quantum physics. The simple statement that quantum mechanics reduces to classical mechanics in the limit where the principal quantum number n approaches infinity, while found in many textbooks, is not true in general. In this article we will give special attention to the notion that the quantum frequency spectrum of a periodic system reduces to the classical spectrum in this limit. Two simple counter-examples—a particle in a cubical box, and a rigid rotator—will show us that the classical result is not always recovered in the limit of large quantum numbers.

Physics Today•Feb 1, 1984•75 citations

The Classical Limit of the Quantum Kepler Problem

A. Martín-Ruiz, J. Bernal, Alejandro Frank +1 more

The classical limit of the quantum mechanical Kepler problem is derived by using a simple mathematical procedure recently proposed. The method is based both on Bohr’s correspondence principle and the local averages of the quantum probability distribution. We illustrate in a clear fashion the difference between Planck’s limit and Bohr’s correspondence principle. We discuss the confinement effect in macroscopic systems.

Journal of Modern Physics•Jan 1, 2013•17 citations
Planck formulated the correspondence principle between quantum and classical mechanics as the limit in which the Planck constant h goes to zero. Bohr formulated the correspondence principle to be the limit of large quantum numbers. For three common quantum mechanical systems it is shown that in order for eigenvalues of quantum mechanical observables to have meaningful classical limits, it is necessary to take the double limit as both the Planck constant goes to zero and the quantum number goes to infinity, subject to the constraint that their product is equal to an appropriate classical action. This synthesis of the Bohr and Planck formulations of the correspondence principle is also used to show that the quantum mechanical transition frequency between adjacent levels approaches the corresponding classical frequency. The features these systems have in common in their classical limit are explained by general considerations of the classical limit of the Schrödinger equation.
Abstract Classical and quantum mechanics are two very different theories, each describing the world within its own range of validity. It is often stated that classical mechanics emerges from quantum mechanics in a certain limit. This is known as the correspondence principle. According to Planck’s version of the correspondence principle, classical mechanics is recovered when the limit in which a dimensionless parameter containing Planck’s constant h goes to zero is taken, while Bohr’s version entails taking the limit of large quantum numbers. However, despite what is usually stated in textbooks, the relation between the two theories is much more complex to state and understand. Here we deal with this issue by analysing some key examples, in some of which also the analogously subtle relation between wave and geometric optics is considered. Implications for quantum mechanics teaching at undergraduate level are carefully discussed.
In this paper we suggest a simple mathematical procedure to derive the classical probability density of quantum systems via Bohr’s correspondence principle. Using Fourier expansions for the classical and quantum distributions, we assume that the Fourier coefficients coincide for the case of large quantum number. We illustrate the procedure by analyzing the classical limit for the quantum harmonic oscillator and the particle in a box, although the method is quite general. We find, in an analytical fashion, the classical distribution arising from the quantum one as the zeroth order term in an expansion in powers of Planck’s constant. We interpret the correction terms as residual quantum effects at the microscopic-macroscopic boundary.
When someone says take the classical limit, the next question is what is being asked to become classical. Paper 113 wrote that quantum mechanics is a deformation of classical mechanics by Planck's constant and that letting that constant go to zero returns the classical algebra. That is a statement about structures. This paper asks the neighbouring question: does the behaviour return? They are different sentences, and the second has several answers. NO NEW MATHEMATICAL THEOREM AND NO NEW PHYSICAL LAW IS CLAIMED: Ehrenfest's theorem, Bohr's correspondence principle, the WKB approximation, and the collapse and revival of wavepackets are all standard, and no interpretation of quantum mechanics is judged. Every number was computed for this paper, and no matrix result is quoted unless doubling the basis left it alone. First, the equations. The rate of change of the mean momentum is exactly minus the mean of the force, while the classical equation uses the force at the mean position. These agree exactly when the force is linear, that is when the potential is at most quadratic. For a Gaussian packet of mean seven tenths and standard deviation thirty-five hundredths, the gap was zero for the quadratic, one hundred and twenty-two and a half thousandths for the cubic, and twenty-five thousand seven hundred and twenty-five hundred-thousandths for the quartic, matching the closed forms exactly. What makes the gap is the width of the packet, and the width is where Planck's constant enters, so the gap is proportional to it. At a fixed time the classical equation is therefore recovered, and that proviso is worth remembering. Second, the spectrum. Bohr said that for large quantum number the frequency radiated on a jump down by one approaches the classical orbital frequency. In hydrogen the ratio of the two runs three, then one and four hundred and six thousandths, then one and fifteen thousandths at a hundred, and one and one and a half thousandths at a thousand, approaching one like one plus three over twice the quantum number. Not once does Planck's constant appear in that ratio. The correspondence principle is not a statement that the constant is small but that the quantum number is large, a different sentence from the first. Nor is it about a single frequency: a jump down by two corresponds to the second harmonic of the orbit and by three to the third, with ratios that were measured separately. Third, the wavefunction. Take the Bohr-Sommerfeld condition with the added one half, the Maslov index, and apply it in the same form to two wells. For the harmonic oscillator the recipe agrees with the matrix eigenvalues to zero error at every level tested, the ground state included. For the quartic well it is never exact, with a relative error of about eighteen hundredths at the ground state falling to about two hundred-thousandths at the fortieth level. Semiclassical is not one condition either: the same recipe means different things in different wells. Fourth, and this is the core. Place a packet at rest in the quartic well and integrate the classical orbit with my own Runge-Kutta scheme. Holding the time fixed and lowering Planck's constant, the difference dies in proportion to it: halving the constant halves the difference, in agreement with the closed form of the first part. Holding the constant fixed and waiting instead, the swing collapses from its full value to about two ten-thousandths, and then comes back to about two thirds of its original size much later, while the classical orbit has not moved at all. So this is not a small correction to an orbit. Both the collapse and the revival come from the level spacing not being uniform, and nothing on the classical side answers to that. Fix the time and take the constant to zero and the answer is classical; fix the constant and take the time to infinity and it is not. This pattern is not new to this corpus. Paper 154 takes two limits failing to commute as its subject and sets zero against a definite magnetisation in the Curie-Weiss magnet. All that is added here is that the same pattern appears at the quantum-classical boundary. Fifth, the survival time is finite all the same. Measuring how long the swing takes to fall below a tenth of its initial value gives values that grow steadily as the constant shrinks, each surviving a doubling of the basis to eleven decimal places. It grows, and only as a power law. Making the constant small postpones the classical orbit's failure rather than preventing it. And Ehrenfest time is itself one name for two behaviours: the short logarithmic one often quoted belongs to chaotic systems, where the spreading is exponential, while this well is integrable and measurement gives a power. The exponent measured here is one packet in one well, not a derived exponent. A census. The equations become classical by Ehrenfest, exactly up to quadratic and spoiled by the width beyond. The spectrum becomes classical by Bohr's correspondence, driven by large quantum number and not by Planck's constant. The wavefunction becomes classical by WKB, exact in one well and asymptotic in another. The state becomes classical by decoherence, in which superposition goes. These four are not a staircase of strength: decoherence makes the state classical without making the equations classical, and as Paper 55 wrote a diagonal density matrix does not say which outcome occurs, while conversely the equations can be classical with superposition surviving. What settles it is what is being asked to be classical. Important (scope note): a census of established standard facts (Layer 2). What is not shown: any new mathematical theorem or physical law, none is claimed; any judgement on interpretations of quantum mechanics; any refutation of Paper 113, since this is a brake and not a refutation; and any novelty for the pattern of two limits failing to commute, which Paper 154 already holds. What is added: setting four limits against one separator, what is being asked to become classical; writing the Ehrenfest gap in closed form and confirming its proportionality in numbers; measuring the rate of the correspondence principle and showing that Planck's constant never enters it; placing one WKB recipe side by side where it is exact and where it is only asymptotic; and measuring the collapse and revival to a precision that survives a doubling of the basis. What remains: when someone says take the classical limit, the next question is what is being asked to become classical. The equations, the spectrum, the wavefunction, or the state all go by the same phrase, hold under different conditions and fail in different places. And the algebra returning does not mean the behaviour returns. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- 「古典極限を取る」と言われたら、次に問うべきは「何が古典になれと言われているのか」である。 論文113 は「量子力学は古典力学の ℏ による変形であり、ℏ→0 で古典代数に戻る」と書いた。それは構造についての言明である。本稿は隣の問いを立てる——では振る舞いは戻るのか。二つは別の文であり、後者には答えが複数ある。新しい数学定理も新しい物理法則も主張しない:エーレンフェストの定理、ボーアの対応原理、WKB 近似、波束の崩壊と再生は、いずれも標準的な内容である。また量子力学の解釈を判定しない。⚠️ 数値はすべて自前の計算であり、行列の対角化は基底を倍にして答えが動かないことを確かめてから引用した(動いた値は載せていない)。 第一に、方程式である。運動量の平均の時間変化は −⟨V′(x)⟩ に厳密に等しく、古典の式は −V′(⟨x⟩) である。両者が一致するのは V′ が線形のとき、すなわち V が二次までのときに限る。平均 0.7、標準偏差 0.35 のガウス波束で隔たりを測ると、二次では 0、三次では 0.1225(=σ²)、四次では 0.25725(=3μσ²)とぴたり予測どおりであった(本稿で計算)。⭐ 隔たりを作っているのは波束の幅である。そして幅こそが ℏ の入り口である——最小不確定の波束では σ²=ℏ/2 だから、隔たりは ℏ に比例する(ℏ=1, 0.01, 0.0001 で 1.05, 0.0105, 0.000105)。したがって時刻を固定すれば ℏ→0 で古典の式に戻る。⚠️ この但し書きを覚えておきたい。 第二に、スペクトルである。ボーア(1913, 1920)は、量子数が大きいとき n→n−1 の遷移で放射される振動数が古典の公転振動数に近づくと述べた。水素をリュードベリ単位で書けば遷移振動数は 1/(n−1)²−1/n²、n 番目の準位での古典の公転振動数は 2/n³ である。比は n=2 で 3.0、n=5 で 1.40625、n=10 で 1.17283950617、n=100 で 1.01520253035、n=1000 で 1.0015020025、n=10000 で 1.00015002 となり、近づき方は 1+3/(2n) と桁で一致した(本稿で計算)。⭐⭐ この比のどこにも ℏ が現れていない。対応原理は「ℏ が小さい」という言明ではなく、「量子数が大きい」という言明である——第一の ℏ→0 とは別の文なのである。しかも一本の振動数の話ですらない。n→n−k は公転の第 k 高調波に対応し、n=1000 で k=1,2,3 の比は 1.0015020025、1.00300802005、1.00451806774 であった。対応しているのはフーリエ級数の全体である。 第三に、波動関数である。ボーア=ゾンマーフェルトの量子化条件に 1/2 を加えたもの(マスロフ指数)を、二つの井戸に同じ形で当てる。調和振動子では n=0, 1, 5, 20 のいずれでも WKB の値が行列の固有値と誤差ゼロで一致した——基底状態を含め、どの n でも厳密である。ところが四次の井戸ではどの n でも厳密でなく、相対誤差は n=0 で 1.822×10⁻¹、n=1 で 1.257×10⁻²、n=10 で 3.204×10⁻⁴、n=40 で 2.156×10⁻⁵ と、n とともに改善するだけである(本稿で計算)。⭐ 「準古典」も一つの条件ではない。同じ処方が、井戸によって別のことを意味している。 第四に、これが本稿の芯である。四次の井戸に x=1.5 で静止した波束を置き、古典側は ẍ=−4x³ を自前のルンゲ=クッタ法で解く。時刻を t=2 に固定して ℏ を下げると、差は 0.1762、0.1050、0.0581、0.0307 と ℏ に比例して消える(ℏ を半分にすると差も半分——第一の閉じた形と合う)。⭐⭐ ところが ℏ=0.1 に固定して待つと、振れ幅は 1.5 から潰れていき、t=27.50 で 0.000195 に達し、そして t=199.85 で 0.664054 へ戻ってきた。古典の軌道は潰れも戻りもせず、1.4986 から一度も動いていない。したがってこれは軌道への小さな補正ではない。潰れも再生も、準位の間隔が一様でないことから来る——古典の側には対応するものが何も無い。すなわち、時刻を固定して ℏ→0 とすれば古典に戻り、ℏ を固定して t→∞ とすれば戻らない。二つの極限は順序を持って取られ、順序が答を決める。 ⚠️ この型は本体系の新顔ではない。論文154 が「二つの極限が交換しない」を主題にし、キュリー=ワイス磁石で 0 と 0.957504 を並べている。本稿が加えたのは、同じ型が量子と古典の境目にも現れるということだけである。 第五に、それでも存続時間は有限である。振れ幅が最初の十分の一を切るまでの時間を測ると、ℏ=0.4, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05 に対して 8.160、10.640、14.280、19.200 であった(各行とも基底を倍にして 10⁻¹¹ しか動かない)。伸びるが、伸び方は冪則にとどまる(測った両対数の傾きは ℏ の −0.41 乗)。⭐ ℏ を小さくすることは古典の軌道を延命するのであって、永続させはしない。⚠️ そして「エーレンフェスト時間」もまた一語で二つを指している。文献でよく引かれる log(1/ℏ) という短さはカオス系のものであり、広がりが指数的であることから来る。本稿の井戸は可積分であり、測ると冪則になる。⚠️ 上の指数は一つの波束・一つの井戸についての測定値であって、導出した指数ではない。 点呼をしておく。方程式が古典になるのがエーレンフェストで、二次までは厳密、以遠は幅が壊す。スペクトルが古典になるのがボーアの対応原理で、効くのは大きな量子数であって ℏ ではない。波動関数が古典になるのが WKB・準古典で、井戸によって厳密でも漸近でもある。状態が古典になるのがデコヒーレンスで、重ね合わせは消える。⚠️ 四つは強さの階段ではない。デコヒーレンスは状態を古典的にするが方程式を古典化せず(論文55 が書いたとおり、対角的な密度行列はどの結果が実現するかを語らない)、逆に方程式が古典的でも重ね合わせは残りうる。決めているのは、何に対して古典であれと言っているかである。 重要(射程):確立された標準的事実の点呼(第2層)。示さないこと:新しい数学定理や物理法則(一つもない)/量子力学の解釈の判定(していない)/論文113 への反論(ブレーキであって反論ではない)/「二つの極限が交換しない」という型の新規性(論文154 が既に持っている)。加えたもの:四つを「何が古典になれと言われているか」という一つの分離子に並べたこと、エーレンフェストの隔たりを閉じた形で書いて ℏ 比例を数で確かめたこと、対応原理の近づき方を測
Niels Bohr’s “correspondence principle” is typically believed to be the requirement that in the limit of large quantum numbers (n→∞) there is a statistical agreement between the quantum and classical frequencies. A closer reading of Bohr’s writings on the correspondence principle, however, reveals that this interpretation is mistaken. Specifically, Bohr makes the following three puzzling claims: First, he claims that the correspondence principle applies to small quantum numbers as well as large (while the statistical agreement of frequencies is only for large n); second, he claims that the correspondence principle is a law of quantum theory; and third, Bohr argues that formal apparatus of matrix mechanics (the new quantum theory) can be thought of as a precise formulation of the correspondence principle. With further textual evidence, I offer an alternative interpretation of the correspondence principle in terms of what I call Bohr’s selection rule. I conclude by showing how this new interpretation of the correspondence principle readily makes sense of Bohr’s three puzzling claims.
The correspondence principle addresses the connection between classical and quantum physics. The simple statement that quantum mechanics reduces to classical mechanics in the limit where the principal quantum number n approaches infinity, while found in many textbooks, is not true in general. In this article we will give special attention to the notion that the quantum frequency spectrum of a periodic system reduces to the classical spectrum in this limit. Two simple counter-examples—a particle in a cubical box, and a rigid rotator—will show us that the classical result is not always recovered in the limit of large quantum numbers.