Practical realizations of qubits and systems of qubits are implement by particles with states from infinite-dimensional space, such as space of wave functions for coordinate representation of quantum mechanics. Properties of the entangled states of continuous variables differ from such for discrete variables. That occurs due to existence of unlimited operators of observables and their uncertainties. In this work we used and extended idea of entanglement estimation for the case of continuous variables with the help of covariance matrix norm. Well-known concurrence was calculated with the help of covariance of observables. The goal of this paper is to check if it is possible to apply this idea to continuous variables. We consider coherent electron pair as the object of our investigation. We also consider coordinate and momentum of coherent electron pair as basis of observables. In this work, a new characteristic of entanglement is proposed. We evaluated that using correlation function instead of covariance. For the small distances between particles, it coincides with covariance matrix norm but for the big distances, it remains restricted.
Practical realizations of qubits and systems of qubits are implement by particles with states from infinite-dimensional space, such as space of wave functions for coordinate representation of quantum mechanics. Properties of the entangled states of continuous variables differ from such for discrete variables. That occurs due to existence of unlimited operators of observables and their uncertainties. In this work we used and extended idea of entanglement estimation for the case of continuous variables with the help of covariance matrix norm. Well-known concurrence was calculated with the help of covariance of observables. The goal of this paper is to check if it is possible to apply this idea to continuous variables. We consider coherent electron pair as the object of our investigation. We also consider coordinate and momentum of coherent electron pair as basis of observables. In this work, a new characteristic of entanglement is proposed. We evaluated that using correlation function instead of covariance. For the small distances between particles, it coincides with covariance matrix norm but for the big distances, it remains restricted.
The dimensionality of entanglement, quantified by the Schmidt number, is a core resource for quantum information processing. While its certification is well-established in finite-dimensional systems, many platforms harnessing high Schmidt numbers are natively continuous-variable (CV) systems, which are usually truncated to a finite subspace before canonical discrete-variable techniques are applied. For those instances, a core question is whether directly utilizing a genuinely CV toolbox leads to better and more robust characterisations. We answer this question by introducing Schmidt-number witnesses built directly from correlations and covariances of phase-space observables, accessible through characteristic- or Wigner-function measurements. They hold for arbitrary mixed states, including non-Gaussian ones, and only require correlations along a slice of phase space. We show that this direct estimation is more robust and versatile than first discretizing the system and using canonical discrete variable techniques. Moreover, we apply our method to certify arbitrarily-large Schmidt numbers of a bound-entangled Gaussian state. These results motivate genuine CV methods for characterizing high-dimensional entanglement across CV quantum technologies.
Covariance matrices are a useful tool for investigating correlations and entanglement in quantum systems. They are widely used in continuous-variable systems, but recently also for finite-dimensional systems powerful entanglement criteria in terms of covariance matrices have been derived. We show how these results can be used for the quantification of entanglement in bipartite systems. To that aim we introduce an entanglement parameter that quantifies the violation of the covariance matrix criterion and can be used to give lower bounds on the concurrence. These lower bounds are easily computable and give entanglement estimates for many weakly entangled states.
The teleportation of a two-particle entangled state, using a Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger triplet, for continuous variables is studied. The basis for joint three-particle measurements is found, where the vectors describe the states in which only two of three particles are entangled. It represents the measurement of the momentum of one particle and the difference of coordinates and the sum of momenta of the two other particles. An optical realization of this scheme is presented, which uses squeezed states of light and reduces the measurement of momentum and coordinate to the detection of quadrature operators of the electromagnetic field.
Abstract We consider a quantum entangled state for two particles, each particle having two basis states, which includes an entangled pair of spin 1/2 particles. We show that, for any quantum entangled state vectors of such systems, one can always find a pair of observable operators X,Y with zero correlations (⟨ψ∣XY∣ψ⟩−⟨ψ∣X∣ψ⟩⟨ψ∣Y∣ψ⟩=0). At the same time, if we consider the analogous classical system of a “classically entangled” (statistically non-independent) pair of random variables taking two values, one can never have zero correlations (zero covariance, E[XY]−E[X]E[Y]=0). We provide a general proof to illustrate the different nature of entanglements in classical and quantum theories.
Quantum information can be processed in two fundamentally different ways, using either discrete or continuous variable implementations. Each one of them provides different practical advantages and drawbacks. In this thesis we study theoretical means allowing to implement quantum information protocols originally formulated for discrete quantum systems in physical objects characterized by continuous variables. At the heart of our considerations is the use of modular variables as helpful technique to reveal discrete structure in continuous-variable states, operations and observables. The present work is strongly guided by the experimental applicability of our ideas in quantum optics experiments, with a particular focus on the transverse degrees of freedom of single photons.One of the main themes of this thesis is the formulation of a framework for quantum information processing in phase-space based on the use of modular variables. The term modular variables refers to a specific class of observables that are periodic with respect to some pair of conjugate variables. In our framework we use these periodic observables in order to encode discrete quantum information in Hilbert spaces of infinite dimension. In particular, we consider protocols that involve measurements of judiciously chosen logical observables enabling the readout of the encoded discrete quantum information from the corresponding logical states. Using this framework we show how to perform tests of fundamental properties of quantum mechanics, such as entanglement, Bell nonlocality and contextuality, in Hilbert spaces of various dimensions. Particularly, we generalize known tests of each of these properties, that were originally formulated for measurements with discrete outcomes, to more general measurement contexts comprising the case of bounded continuous outcomes. Concerning experimental implementations of the presented theoretical elaborations we discuss the transverse degrees of freedom of single photons as a natural platform to manipulate and measure modular variables. In particular, we demonstrate how to process discrete quantum information encoded in the spatial distribution of single photons via the optical Talbot effect - a near-field interference effect. Finally, we show how to produce d-dimensional entangled Talbot photon pairs without post-selection, using spontaneous parametric down-conversion and linear optical elements only. As last topic we explore the nonlocal properties of a specific class of hybrid entanglement between particle-like and wave-like optical qubits. Using a hybrid measurement scheme of Pauli and displaced parity measurements we show that, even after including realistic experimental losses, a violation of local-realism is theoretically possible.
The characterisation of quantum correlations, also known as entanglement, is central to quantum information theory. Operationally, entanglement gives rise to the notion of quantum non-locality, which challenges the ‘reality’ of quantum mechanics (adopting the terminology of Einstein, Podolski and Rosen) and arguably represents its most distinctive feature, in the sense that it calls for a departure from certain foundational tenets of classical physics. It should thus not come as a surprise that entanglement turns out to be a key resource for the implementation of a number of quantum communication protocols and also necessary to achieve computational speed-ups with quantum hardware, in the sense that accessing regions of the Hilbert space with entangled states allows one to shorten the computational depth of certain algorithms. Not surprisingly, generating and maintaining entanglement is generally difficult in practice, as it requires strong interactions between selected components of a system that must at the same time be isolated from the environment. Thanks to the techniques developed in quantum optical set-ups to achieve squeezed light, entanglement is, however, comparatively accessible with optical quantum continuous variables. As we shall see, in fact, continuous variable entanglement is closely related to the notion of squeezing. It is therefore of the utmost importance to be able to qualify and quantify the entanglement of quantum continuous variables, which is the subject matter of the present chapter. The first part of the chapter is devoted to techniques and criteria based on second moments to detect the entanglement of Gaussian states and also to the description of possible ways to quantify such quantum correlations, bearing in mind that the determination of entanglement monotones of clear operational significance is still an open problem, even in the restricted arena of Gaussian states. Although the criteria based on second moments are sufficient, but not necessary, for the detection of non-Gaussian entanglement too, we will push our analysis further by introducing more general criteria based on higher order statistical moments, which will be put to use to detect, on paper, the quantum correlations of an entangled cat-like state. We will also address the issues of entanglement distillation and quantum non-locality tests, in whose contexts we shall encounter other non-Gaussian operations and states, such as photon-subtracted states.