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ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing (STOC)

Certifiable quantum dice

Umesh V. Vazirani, Thomas Vidick

Published May 19, 2012• 80 citations
Publisher

Abstract

We introduce a protocol through which a pair of quantum mechanical devices may be used to generate n bits that are ε-close in statistical distance from n uniformly distributed bits, starting from a seed of O(log n log 1/ε) uniform bits. The bits generated are certifiably random based only on a simple statistical test that can be performed by the user, and on the assumption that the devices do not communicate in the middle of each phase of the protocol. No other assumptions are placed on the devices' inner workings. A modified protocol uses a seed of O(log3 n) uniformly random bits to generate n bits that are poly-1(n)-indistinguishable from uniform even from the point of view of a quantum adversary who may have had prior access to the devices, and may be entangled with them.

DOI
10.1145/2213977.2213984

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We introduce a protocol through which a pair of quantum mechanical devices may be used to generate n bits that are ε-close in statistical distance from n uniformly distributed bits, starting from a seed of O(log n log 1/ε) uniform bits. The bits generated are certifiably random based only on a simple statistical test that can be performed by the user, and on the assumption that the devices do not communicate in the middle of each phase of the protocol. No other assumptions are placed on the devices' inner workings. A modified protocol uses a seed of O(log3 n) uniformly random bits to generate n bits that are poly-1(n)-indistinguishable from uniform even from the point of view of a quantum adversary who may have had prior access to the devices, and may be entangled with them.
We introduce a protocol through which a pair of quantum mechanical devices may be used to generate n bits of true randomness from a seed of O(log n) uniform bits. The bits generated are certifiably random based only on a simple statistical test that can be performed by the user, and on the assumption that the devices obey the no-signaling principle. No other assumptions are placed on the devices' inner workings. A modified protocol uses a seed of O(log^3 n) uniformly random bits to generate nnn bits of true randomness even conditioned on the state of a quantum adversary who may have had prior access to the devices, and may be entangled with them.
We introduce a protocol through which a pair of quantum mechanical devices may be used to generate n random bits that are ε-close in statistical distance from n uniformly distributed bits, starting from a seed of uniform bits. The bits generated are certifiably random, based only on a simple statistical test that can be performed by the user, and on the assumption that the devices obey the no-signalling principle. No other assumptions are placed on the devices' inner workings: it is not necessary to even assume the validity of quantum mechanics.
We give a protocol for producing certifiable randomness from a single untrusted quantum device that is polynomial-time bounded. The randomness is certified to be statistically close to uniform from the point of view of any computationally unbounded quantum adversary, that may share entanglement with the quantum device. The protocol relies on the existence of post-quantum secure trapdoor claw-free functions, and introduces a new primitive for constraining the power of an untrusted quantum device. We then show how to construct this primitive based on the hardness of the learning with errors (LWE) problem. The randomness protocol can also be used as the basis for an efficiently verifiable "quantum supremacy" proposal, thus answering an outstanding challenge in the field.
Measurements on entangled quantum systems necessarily yield outcomes that are intrinsically unpredictable if they violate a Bell inequality. This property can be used to generate certified randomness in a device-independent way, i.e., without making detailed assumptions about the internal working of the quantum devices used to generate the random numbers. Furthermore these numbers are also private; i.e., they appear random not only to the user but also to any adversary that might possess a perfect description of the devices. Since this process requires a small initial random seed to sample the behavior of the quantum devices and to extract uniform randomness from the raw outputs of the devices, one usually speaks of device-independent randomness expansion. The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, we point out that in most real, practical situations, where the concept of device independence is used as a protection against unintentional flaws or failures of the quantum apparatuses, it is sufficient to show that the generated string is random with respect to an adversary that holds only classical side information; i.e., proving randomness against quantum side information is not necessary. Furthermore, the initial random seed does not need to be private with respect to the adversary, provided that it is generated in a way that is independent from the measured systems. The devices, however, will generate cryptographically secure randomness that cannot be predicted by the adversary, and thus one can, given access to free public randomness, talk about private randomness generation. The theoretical tools to quantify the generated randomness according to these criteria were already introduced in S. Pironio et al. [Nature (London) 464, 1021 (2010)], but the final results were improperly formulated. The second aim of this paper is to correct this inaccurate formulation and therefore lay out a precise theoretical framework for practical device-independent randomness generation.
Brakerski et. al [BCM+18] introduced the model of cryptographic testing of a single untrusted quantum device and gave a protocol for certifiable randomness generation. We use the leakage resilience properties of the Learning With Errors problem to address a key issue left open in previous work - the rate of generation of randomness. Our new protocol can certify Ω(n)Ω(n)Ω(n) fresh bits of randomness in constant rounds, where nnn is a parameter of the protocol and the total communication is O(n)O(n)O(n), thus achieving a nearly optimal rate. The proof that the output is statistically random is conceptually simple and technically elementary.
We present a device-independent randomness expansion protocol, involving only a constant number of non-signaling quantum devices, that achieves infinite expansion: starting with m bits of uniform private randomness, the protocol can produce an unbounded amount of certified randomness that is exp(--Ω(m1/3))-close to uniform and secure against a quantum adversary. The only parameters which depend on the size of the input are the soundness of the protocol and the security of the output (both are inverse exponential in m). This settles a long-standing open problem in the area of randomness expansion and device-independence.