1. Origins - Chapter One: Atoms Waves Quanta Before and after Democritus Titus Lucretius Carus Isaac Newton on atoms. Chapter Two: Spectra Ions Radiant matter Atoms, electrons, waves Discovery of spectral analysis The beginnings of television William Crookes Kinetic theory of gases Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. Chapter Three: The planetary atom Spectral series Photons Victory of atomistics The indivisible atom The diffraction grating Just what hath Rutherford wrought? Light pressure Chapter Four: Pre-Bohr times The Bohr atom Post-Bohr times Formal model of the atom Niels Henrik David Bohr Experimental proof of Bohr's postulates. Chapter Five: Teachings of the Ancients First attempts Elements and atoms Table of elements The Periodic law Atoms and people. 2. Ideas - Chapter Six: Contemporaries comment on Bohr's theory Phenomenon, image, concept, formula Heisenberg's matrix mechanics The foundation of physics. Chapter Seven: Louis de Broglie Matter waves Optical-mechanical analogy Schrodinger's wave mechanics The life of Boscovich ... ... and his atom Paul Ehrenfest (1880-1933). Chapter Eight: Schrodinger's equation The meaning of the psi function The image of the atom Quantum truth Compton's experiment Electron diffraction. Chapter Nine: Wave-particle duality Uncertainty relation Complementarity principle Duality and uncertainty Poets and the complementarity principle. Chapter Ten: Heads or tails and target shooting Electron diffraction Probability waves Electron waves The atom and probability Probability and atomic spectra Causality and chance, probability and certainty People, events, quanta. Chapter Eleven - What is an atom? What is quantum mechanics? Physical reality In search of the last concepts. 3. Results - Chapter Twelve: Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen Antoine Henri Becquerel Pierre and Marie Curie Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy The energy of radium X-ray waves. Chapter Thirteen: The chemisty of radioelements Isotopes uranium family Stable isotopes Radioactive decay energy Nuclear binding energy Uranium Earth and radium Knights of the fifth decimal place. Chapter Fourteen: Probing into the nucleus The neutron Artificial radioactivity Slow neutrons Nuclear fission Letters about fission. Chapter Fifteen: Tunnel effect Effective cross-sections of reactions Neutron cross-sections Nuclear fission Labelled atoms Radiocarbon dating. Chapter Sixteen: Chain reaction Nuclear reactor Spontaneous fission of uranium The natural nuclear reactor at Oklo. Chapter Seventeen: Atomic Energy Plutonium The atomic bomb The atomic problem A chronology of the atomic era Soddy on atomic energy. Chapter Eighteen: Solar light Crucibles of elements The fate of the Sun The Sun, life and chlorophyll Life under the Sun A sun on earth Quanta around us. 4. Reflections - Chapter Nineteen: Inception of the scientific method Essence of the scientific method and its development. Truth and completeness of the scientific picture of the world. Science and humanity Boundaries of the scientific method Science and art Future of science Epilogue.
Origins - Chapter One: Atoms Waves Quanta Before and after Democritus Titus Lucretius Carus Isaac Newton on atoms. Chapter Two: Spectra Ions Radiant matter Atoms, electrons, waves Discovery of spectral analysis The beginnings of television William Crookes Kinetic theory of gases Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. Chapter Three: The planetary atom Spectral series Photons Victory of atomistics The indivisible atom The diffraction grating Just what hath Rutherford wrought? Light pressure Chapter Four: Pre-Bohr times The Bohr atom Post-Bohr times Formal model of the atom Niels Henrik David Bohr Experimental proof of Bohr's postulates. Chapter Five: Teachings of the Ancients First attempts Elements and atoms Table of elements The Periodic law Atoms and people. 2. Ideas - Chapter Six: Contemporaries comment on Bohr's theory Phenomenon, image, concept, formula Heisenberg's matrix mechanics The foundation of physics. Chapter Seven: Louis de Broglie Matter waves Optical-mechanical analogy Schrodinger's wave mechanics The life of Boscovich ... ... and his atom Paul Ehrenfest (1880-1933). Chapter Eight: Schrodinger's equation The meaning of the psi function The image of the atom Quantum truth Compton's experiment Electron diffraction. Chapter Nine: Wave-particle duality Uncertainty relation Complementarity principle Duality and uncertainty Poets and the complementarity principle. Chapter Ten: Heads or tails and target shooting Electron diffraction Probability waves Electron waves The atom and probability Probability and atomic spectra Causality and chance, probability and certainty People, events, quanta. Chapter Eleven - What is an atom? What is quantum mechanics? Physical reality In search of the last concepts. 3. Results - Chapter Twelve: Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen Antoine Henri Becquerel Pierre and Marie Curie Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy The energy of radium X-ray waves. Chapter Thirteen: The chemisty of radioelements Isotopes uranium family Stable isotopes Radioactive decay energy Nuclear binding energy Uranium Earth and radium Knights of the fifth decimal place. Chapter Fourteen: Probing into the nucleus The neutron Artificial radioactivity Slow neutrons Nuclear fission Letters about fission. Chapter Fifteen: Tunnel effect Effective cross-sections of reactions Neutron cross-sections Nuclear fission Labelled atoms Radiocarbon dating. Chapter Sixteen: Chain reaction Nuclear reactor Spontaneous fission of uranium The natural nuclear reactor at Oklo. Chapter Seventeen: Atomic Energy Plutonium The atomic bomb The atomic problem A chronology of the atomic era Soddy on atomic energy. Chapter Eighteen: Solar light Crucibles of elements The fate of the Sun The Sun, life and chlorophyll Life under the Sun A sun on earth Quanta around us. 4. Reflections - Chapter Nineteen: Inception of the scientific method Essence of the scientific method and its development. Truth and completeness of the scientific picture of the world. Science and humanity Boundaries of the scientific method Science and art Future of science Epilogue.
An easy-to-understand guide to the complex subject of quantum physics. Quantum physics is how scientists describe the world of the very small. For other people, however, the rules of quantum physics seem to violate all logic: How can a particle be in more than one place at the same time? How can it tunnel through an impenetrable barrier? How can a cat in a box be both alive and dead? This book explains the complexities of quantum physics in bite-sized "lessons" that make it clear and accessible to all readers. The sections and chapters are: 1. Atoms -- quantum; quantum physics in everyday life; the periodic table; atoms and nuclei; isotopes; hydrogen atom (energy levels and spectra) 2. Photons -- photoelectric effect; thermal emission and the Planck distribution; wave particle duality (Young's slit experiment) 3. Quantum devices -- superconductors; transistor, diode; light-emitting diode; laser 4. Spin -- spin; fermions; exclusion principle; Fermi Dirac distribution; Bose-Einstein statistics 5. Wave Mechanics -- Heisenberg uncertainty principle; wave functions; standing waves; wave particle duality 6. Subatomic Particles -- radioactivity; atomic particles; protons; neutrons; electrons 7. Particle Physics -- elementary particles; quarks; leptons; electron and electron neutrino; muon and muon neutrino; tauon and tau neutrino; bosons; photon; W and Z boson; gluon; Higgs boson; composite particles; hadrons; matter-anti-matter 8. Quantum Physics in Medicine and industry -- magnetic resonance imaging; superfluidity; cancer treatment by radiation 9. Into the Future -- quantum physics of space; quantum gravity; graviton; Hawking radiation (grand unified theory); dark matter; strings; dark energy. Throughout the book, there are timelines and profiles about the scientists who developed the theories and made important discoveries in quantum physics, including Dmitri Rutherford, Albert Einstein, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, William Shockley, Isama Akasaki, Stephen Hawking, Enrico Fermi, and Max Born.
This chapter introduces fundamental concepts of modern physics that emerged from groundbreaking experiments and theories in the early 20th century. It begins by exploring the photoelectric effect, which demonstrates the particle nature of light (photons) and provides a basis for mathematical analysis of this phenomenon. The chapter then discusses Bragg diffraction and the concept of the wave function, illustrating the wave nature of particles such as electrons, protons, and neutrons, and introducing the idea of wave-particle duality. The probability distribution for an electron, whether trapped in a well or traveling freely, is also examined. Rutherford scattering is presented as a pivotal experiment that revealed the existence of the positively charged atomic nucleus. The chapter further explores atomic spectra, explaining how the discrete wavelengths of emitted light indicate that atomic electrons have restricted, quantized energy levels. The Bohr model of the atom is described and mathematically analyzed to predict the spectrum of hydrogen. Finally, the chapter covers the Balmer-Rydberg formula for mathematically analyzing the spectrum of hydrogen. The content is organized into sections covering the photoelectric effect, Bragg diffraction and the wave function, Rutherford scattering, atomic spectra, and a summary of the key concepts. This chapter provides an introduction to the revolutionary ideas of modern physics, including the dual nature of light and matter and the quantized nature of the atom. The chapter includes numerous worked examples and concludes with problems for the student to apply their knowledge.
1: The Birth of Quantum Theory. 1.1: The radiation of an ideal black body. 1.2: Line spectra and Bohr's model of the atom. 1.3: The quantum conditions of Bohr-Sommerfield. 1.4: Waves of matters. Comments. Problems. 2: Classical Physics - Quantum Physics. 2.1: The difficulties of classical theory. 2.2: The successes of quantum theory. 2.3: Problems with interpretation of quantum theory. 2.4: Quantum theory (1930. Problems. II: Schrodinger's Equation and the Interpretation of its Solutions. 3: Schrodinger's Equation. 3.1: The Schrodinger equation with time. 3.2: The time-dependent Schrodinger equation. Comments. Problems. 4: The Probabilistic Interpretation of the Wavefunction. Comments. Problems. 5: The Motion of a Free Particle in Wave Mechanics. 5.1: The spreading of wave packets. 5.2: The initial problem for Schrodinger's free particle equation. 5.3: The Gaussian wave packet. Comments. Problems. 6: The Momentum of a Particle and the Fourier Transformation of the Wavefunction. Comments. Problems. 7: Description of Experiments in Wave Mechanics and the Heinsberg Uncertainty Principle. 7.1: Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. 7.2: The entropic uncertainty principle. Comments. Problems. 8: A Charged Particle in an Electromagnetic Field. Comments. Problems. 9: The Hydrodynamic Formulation of Wave Mechanics. 9.1: The motion of the probability fluid in an electromagnetic field. Comments. Problems. 10: The Spin of the Elctron and Pauli's Equation. 10.1: The magnetic moment vector. 10.2: Pauli's equation. 10.3: The Stern-Gerlach experiments. Comments. Problems. 11: The Hydrodynamic Picture of Wave Mechanics of a Particle with Spin. Comments. Problems. 12: Ehrenfest's Equations. 12.1: A particle with spin in the electromagnetic field. Problems. 13: Descriptiopn of Particle Motion in Phase Space -- Wigner's Function. Comments. Problems. 14: Mixed States. 14.1: An unpolarized beam as a mixed state. Comments. Problems. III: Solutions of Schrodinger's Equation. 15: Classification of Solutions to Schrodinger's Equation. 15.1: Scattering states. 15.2: The completeness of the set of bound and scattering state wavefunctions. 15.3: Orthogonality of the wavefunctions. 15.4: Development of the system in time. 15.5: Bound and scattered states. Problems. 16: Bound States and Energy. 16.1: The three-dimensional spherically symmetric potential well. Comments. Problems. 17: Scattering States and Collision Cross-sections. 17.1: One-dimensional scattering. 17.2: The method of integral equations. 17.3: Three-dimensional scattering. 17.4: The scattering amplitude. 17.5: The S matrix. 17.6: Collision cross-section. 17.7: The optical theorem. Comments. Problems. 18: Partial Waves and Wave Effects in Scattering. 18.1: Phase shifts. 18.2: The spherical potential hump. 18.3: The Ramsauer-Townsend effect. 18.4: The extinction paradox. Comments. Problems. 19: Resonance States. Problems. 20: The Coulomb Potential. 20.1: Bound states. 20.2: Scattering states. Comments. Problems. 21
Chapter 4 deals with Quantum Mechanical (QM) phenomena. The first section describes the first attempts at quantization of energy, momentum, angular momentum, etc. We start with Plank's solution to the black-body problem, introducing the concept of photons: discrete packets of electromagnetic energy. We show how Plank's description of black-body radiation is perfectly fit by the cosmic microwave radiation, providing the strongest evidence for the Big-Bang at the origin of the Universe. We then describe Bohr's solution to the paradoxical stability of atoms, introducing quantization of angular momentum (or action) and correctly predicting the energy levels of the hydrogen atom. We show how Einstein used Plank's idea to explain the photo-electric effect (an effect exploited in CCD cameras and solar cells) and how he used Bohr's understanding of energy levels in atoms to provide an intuitive explanation of Plank's law. Einstein insight opened the way to the field of spectroscopy and the development of the laser. In the second section, following the lead of Dirac, we show that QM is equivalent to Linear Algebra in the space of complex functions (which describe the state of the system). We show that Schrödinger's equation is a natural consequence of that description, once the relation between energy and frequency established by Plank (for photons) and de Broglie (for particles) is taken into account. In the context of the chiral ammonia molecule we discuss the queerness of QM which describes physical systems as superposition of states (such as left and right chirality state of a molecule, dead and alive cat). We show that this queerness is nonetheless supported by experiments and is behind much of our technology: masers and lasers, atomic clocks, semiconductors (diodes, transistors, etc.). In the following section we introduce the representation of operators in QM (the equivalent of matrices in linear algebra): momentum, position, energy, etc. which correspond to measurements on the system. We show that the non-commutability of some operators (common with matrix operations) leads to Heisenberg uncertainty principle: the position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined with absolute precision. We discuss the solution of Schrödinger's equation for free particles demonstrating their equivalence with EM phenomena: particles undergo refraction and diffraction, exemplifying the particle/wave duality inherent to QM systems. We discuss QM tunneling and its use in the Scanning Tunneling Microscope. In the following section we study Dirac's equation: the successful attempt by Dirac to unify QM with Einstein's relativity, with the resulting prediction of anti-particles and spin. We then solve for the energy levels of electrons in the hydrogen atom (from Schrödinger's equation) and show that the existence of spin profoundly affects the behavior of electrons in an atom: they cannot share the same energy level, a rule known as Pauli's exclusion principle. Pauli's principle is central to the understanding of the chemical properties of atoms and fully explains Mendeleev's periodic table of the elements. In the next section we discuss along with two exactly soluble systems (diatomic rotational and vibrational levels), various approximations used to study systems (e.g. molecules) for which there are no analytical solutions. In particular, we introduce Pauling's variational approach, Hückel molecular orbital theory and time independent perturbation theory. We apply those approaches to determine the energy levels in alkenes, in multi-electron atoms and in systems under constant electric or magnetic field (such as in Magnetic Resonance Imaging). In the last section we discuss time dependent perturbation theory. We use it to establish the rules allowing for transitions between energy levels and revisit Einstein description of absorption/emission phenomena.
This chapter starts with the historical development of quantum mechanics and explanations of key concepts behind fundamental discoveries such as Planck's hypothesis, the photoelectric effect, Bohr's atomic model, Compton scattering, the de Broglie hypothesis, the Pauli exclusion principle, the Schrödinger equation, Heisenberg quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle, the Born interpretation of wave function, the Davisson and Germer experiment, and Dirac relativistic quantum mechanics, which made important contributions to the foundation of modern quantum mechanics. Concepts like the particle properties of radiation, the wave properties of matter, quantized energy and momentum, and the idea that one can no longer know exactly where a single particle like an electron is at any instant of time are brought out clearly through this chapter. A list of important quantum mechanical parameters along with solved examples and unsolved exercises on the key concepts are included towards the end.