Low-resolution digital-to-analog conversion can simplify continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CVQKD) transmitters, but coarse quantization increases excess noise and can generate data-correlated spectral replicas. We demonstrate digital delta--sigma modulation (DSM) for low-resolution waveform generation in Gaussian-modulated CVQKD. In a 500-MBaud CVQKD system over 20~km of fiber, 3-bit second-order DSM achieves an estimated asymptotic secret key rate of 46.38~Mbps at an oversampling ratio of 12, whereas uniform quantization yields no positive rate. With 4-bit second-order DSM, the rate reaches 50.11~Mbps, approximately 97\% of the 12-bit reference. A noise model combining the DSM noise-transfer function with matched filtering guides the sampling-rate and signal-band design for effective noise suppression. We also identify a phase-conjugate spectral replica arising from third-order intermodulation between the pilot tone and quantum signal, and evaluate its key-rate penalty using a linear-replica security model. At 3-bit resolution and an oversampling ratio of 24, first-order DSM reduces the experimentally estimated leakage-mode strength by approximately four orders of magnitude. Together, our findings establish the security boundaries and operating conditions of DSM, providing design guidance for low-resolution CVQKD transmitters.
Low-resolution digital-to-analog conversion can simplify continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CVQKD) transmitters, but coarse quantization increases excess noise and can generate data-correlated spectral replicas. We demonstrate digital delta--sigma modulation (DSM) for low-resolution waveform generation in Gaussian-modulated CVQKD. In a 500-MBaud CVQKD system over 20km of fiber, 3-bit second-order DSM achieves an estimated asymptotic secret key rate of 46.38Mbps at an oversampling ratio of 12, whereas uniform quantization yields no positive rate. With 4-bit second-order DSM, the rate reaches 50.11~Mbps, approximately 97% of the 12-bit reference. A noise model combining the DSM noise-transfer function with matched filtering guides the sampling-rate and signal-band design for effective noise suppression. We also identify a phase-conjugate spectral replica arising from third-order intermodulation between the pilot tone and quantum signal, and evaluate its key-rate penalty using a linear-replica security model. At 3-bit resolution and an oversampling ratio of 24, first-order DSM reduces the experimentally estimated leakage-mode strength by approximately four orders of magnitude. Together, our findings establish the security boundaries and operating conditions of DSM, providing design guidance for low-resolution CVQKD transmitters.
A high-rate continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD) system based on high-order discrete modulation is experimentally investigated. With the help of the novel system scheme, effective digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms and advanced analytical security proof methods, the transmission results of 5.059 km, 10.314 km, 24.490 km, and 50.592 km are achieved for 1 GBaud optimized quantum signals. Correspondingly, the asymptotic secret key rates (SKRs) are 292.185 Mbps, 156.246 Mbps, 50.491 Mbps, and 7.495 Mbps for discrete Gaussian (DG) 64QAM, and 328.297 Mbps, 176.089 Mbps, 51.304 Mbps, and 9.193 Mbps for DG 256QAM, respectively. Under the same parameters, the achieved SKRs of DG 256QAM is almost same as ideal Gaussian modulation. In this case, the demonstrated high-rate discrete-modulated CV-QKD system has the application potential for high-speed security communication under tens of kilometers.
Continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD), which uses quadratures of the electromagnetic field, enables practical quantum communication using standard telecommunication technologies. Unidimensional CV-QKD (UD-CVQKD) simplifies the implementation by restricting modulation to a single quadrature. In this work, we experimentally demonstrate a free-space Gaussian-modulated UD-CVQKD system operating under a high detector electronic-noise regime (1.4 shot-noise units). The system employs polarized coherent states with signal and local oscillator co-propagating in the same spatial mode in orthogonal polarizations, ensuring stable interference. System security is analyzed under both untrusted (UTD) and trusted (TD) detector noise models. While no positive secret key rate is obtained under the UTD model, the TD model enables secure key generation over a finite range of modulation variances, highlighting the critical role of detector trust in high-noise conditions. A maximum secret key rate of 270 kbps is achieved at an optimal modulation variance of 11.57. Furthermore, secure operation requires high-transmittance (low-loss) channels under such noise conditions. This study demonstrates the practical feasibility of free-space UD-CVQKD in realistic high electronic-noise detection constraints and highlights detector electronic noise as a key limiting factor in practical systems.
A high-speed Gaussian-modulated continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CVQKD) with a local local oscillator (LLO) is experimentally demonstrated based on pilot-tone-assisted phase compensation. In the proposed scheme, the frequency-multiplexing and polarization-multiplexing techniques are used for the separate transmission and heterodyne detection between quantum signal and pilot tone, guaranteeing no crosstalk from strong pilot tone to weak quantum signal and different detection requirements of low-noise for quantum signal and high-saturation limitation for pilot tone. Moreover, compared with the conventional CVQKD based on homodyne detection, the proposed LLO-CVQKD scheme can measure X and P quadrature simultaneously using heterodyne detection without need of extra random basis selection. Besides, the phase noise, which contains the fast-drift phase noise due to the relative phase of two independent lasers and the slow-drift phase noise introduced by quantum channel disturbance, has been compensated experimentally in real time, so that a low level of excess noise with a 25 km optical fiber channel (with 5 dB loss) is obtained for the achievable secure key rate of 7.04 Mbps in the asymptotic regime and 1.85 Mbps under the finite-size block of 107.
Accurately estimating phase is crucial in continuous-variable quantum key distribution systems, directly impacting the final secret key rate. In previous systems that utilize the local local oscillator, phase estimation is closely tied to the amplitude and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the pilot signal. As SNR decreases, so does the accuracy of phase estimation, leading to increased excess noise and a potential loss of the system's secret key rate. The SNR of the pilot signal is constrained by the optical source power, which tends to approach 0 dB, particularly over long distances. Enhancing the accuracy of phase estimation under conditions of low SNR for pilot signals is highly challenging, especially in long-distance quantum key distribution. Our paper proposes two digital filter methods: the unscented Kalman filtering (UKF) and the Savitzky-Golay filtering (SGF) for phase estimation, which effectively mitigates the effects of additive noise. The approach applies to digital systems and therefore holds particular advantages in systems based on discrete-modulation (DM) protocols. Through simulations and practical implementation based on DM protocols, we find that the digital filter scheme is capable of accurately estimating phase, especially in scenarios with low SNR of the pilot signal. The conventional method fails to achieve an effective secret key rate, whereas the digital-filter-based scheme achieves a secret key rate of almost 30 kbps over a 20 km fiber link with a repetition frequency of 5 MHz under conditions where the SNR of the pilot signal is around 0 dB.
Continuous-Variable Quantum Key Distribution (CV-QKD) is a form of quantum cryptography that encodes information in the amplitude and phase of light, enabling provably secure key sharing over optical channels. Building on previous research, subcarrier multiplexing configurations have been proposed to allow a quantum channel and a classical data channel to share a single optical carrier and transmitter. In these schemes, advanced Digital Signal Processing (DSP) enables the high Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) classical signal to serve as a phase reference for the quantum channel, facilitating phase recovery without dedicated pilot tones. This thesis integrates these concepts into a complete system architecture that combines CV-QKD with One-Time Pad encrypted communication over a single fiber and transmitter, bringing practical implementation closer to a scenario where classical and quantum communication modes can be selected purely via software. A detailed link-budget analysis quantifies trade-offs between classical and quantum data rates and ensures sufficient bandwidth for essential post-processing tasks such as reverse reconciliation and parameter estimation.Beyond system integration and experimental improvements, this work rigorously addresses practical security. Three contributions enhance parameter estimation under realistic conditions. First, the Multi-Level Parameter Estimation scheme allows continuous receiver-noise calibration via an intensity modulator without interrupting key generation, significantly increasing throughput. Second, a DSP-induced mode mismatch is characterized: the receiver's digital filters and hardware response define the measured quantum mode, which may deviate from the sender's calibration and bias critical parameter estimation. Third, the Time-Gated Variance formalism quantifies calibrations in the presence of realistic non-white noise, accounting for the impact of calibration duration on variance estimation. Together, these methods provide a more accurate, quantitative foundation for assessing transmittance and excess noise, improving both security and performance.Although demonstrated on a single-fiber, subcarrier-multiplexed system, these techniques are broadly applicable to other CV-QKD architectures. By combining such system designs with rigorous, quantitative analysis of noise calibrations, this thesis takes a step toward scalable, certifiable quantum-secured communication, bridging the gap between theoretical security and real-world deployment.
In this paper, a multi-carrier Gaussian modulated continuous variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD) scheme has been proposed based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) for distributing multiplexing independent secret keys encoded on N subcarriers within a single fiber channel. However, the performance of the system will be significantly influenced by the extra modulation noise in the multi-carrier quantum state preparation. Therefore, a modulation noise model is analyzed in more compact for multi-carrier Gaussian modulated CV-QKD system. Specifically, the gain imbalance and quadrature skew in IQ modulation and the third-order intermodulation effect in N subcarrier modulation are systematically analyzed in the OFDM-based multi-carrier CV-QKD with Gaussian modulation. That is, the IQ imbalance noise and the intermodulation noise are modeled as the modulation noise of the multi-carrier Gaussian modulated CV-QKD system. Moreover, the secure performances of the multi-carrier Gaussian modulated CVQKD are evaluated based on the proposed modulation noise model. Besides, the simulation results show the SKRs are greatly increased by N independent quantum state preparation, which indicates that the multi-carrier CV-QKD system gets rid of the asymptotic SKR limit of single-carrier CV-QKD system for future high-rate CV-QKD deployment in broadband access network.