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arXiv:2610.02939

Root-sparsity scaling for Hamiltonian simulation, differential equations and linear-system solvers

Dominic W. Berry, Abhishek Rawat, Sophia Simon, Guang Hao Low

quant-phSubmitted Oct 2, 2026• Announced Oct 5, 2026• 0 citations
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Abstract

We give quantum algorithms for Hamiltonian simulation, linear differential equations, and linear systems with square-root dependence on sparsity. For an $s$-sparse Hermitian matrix with row and column Euclidean norms bounded by $η$, evolution for time $t$ to error $ε$ uses $\mathcal{O}(\sqrt{s}τ+\sqrt{sτ\log(1/ε)}+\log(1/ε))$ queries, where $τ=η|t|$. The same bound holds for time-dependent Hamiltonians with coherent time-indexed sparse access and certified time discretisation. Our construction combines an exact entrywise representation with Cayley transducers. A joint lower bound nearly matches the time, sparsity, and precision dependence, ruling out a uniformly additive bound in $\sqrt{s}τ$ and $\log(1/ε)$. For dissipative linear differential equations we obtain $\mathcal{O}(\bar g[\sqrt{s}(τ+\sqrtτ)+1]\log(C\bar g/ε))$ queries, where $τ$ is the evolution time multiplied by a norm bound, $\bar g$ bounds the ratio of combined input and source norms to the final-solution norm, and $C$ is an absolute constant. We sharpen this bound by separating Hamiltonian and dissipative components, and treat general constant generators. Lower bounds capture joint parameter dependence for time-dependent equations and precision hardness for constant positive semidefinite dissipation. For linear systems, a Cayley walk and Chebyshev filter give $\mathcal{O}(κ\sqrt{s}\log(1/ε))$ queries when $\|A\|\le1$ and $\|A^{-1}\|\leκ$, and we give an alternative proof of a matching joint lower bound. We also give gate-efficient implementations of time-independent Hamiltonian simulation and the dissipative ODE solver, including Lipschitz time dependence, retaining the query bounds with polylogarithmic overhead in inverse precision given efficient entry decoding, arithmetic, and required source preparations.

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67 pages

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We give quantum algorithms for Hamiltonian simulation, linear differential equations, and linear systems with square-root dependence on sparsity. For an sss-sparse Hermitian matrix with row and column Euclidean norms bounded by ηηη, evolution for time ttt to error εεε uses O(sτ+sτlog⁡(1/ε)+log⁡(1/ε))\mathcal{O}(\sqrt{s}τ+\sqrt{sτ\log(1/ε)}+\log(1/ε))O(s​τ+sτlog(1/ε)​+log(1/ε)) queries, where τ=η∣t∣τ=η|t|τ=η∣t∣. The same bound holds for time-dependent Hamiltonians with coherent time-indexed sparse access and certified time discretisation. Our construction combines an exact entrywise representation with Cayley transducers. A joint lower bound nearly matches the time, sparsity, and precision dependence, ruling out a uniformly additive bound in sτ\sqrt{s}τs​τ and log⁡(1/ε)\log(1/ε)log(1/ε). For dissipative linear differential equations we obtain O(gˉ[s(τ+τ)+1]log⁡(Cgˉ/ε))\mathcal{O}(\bar g[\sqrt{s}(τ+\sqrtτ)+1]\log(C\bar g/ε))O(gˉ​[s​(τ+τ​)+1]log(Cgˉ​/ε)) queries, where τττ is the evolution time multiplied by a norm bound, gˉ\bar ggˉ​ bounds the ratio of combined input and source norms to the final-solution norm, and CCC is an absolute constant. We sharpen this bound by separating Hamiltonian and dissipative components, and treat general constant generators. Lower bounds capture joint parameter dependence for time-dependent equations and precision hardness for constant positive semidefinite dissipation. For linear systems, a Cayley walk and Chebyshev filter give O(κslog⁡(1/ε))\mathcal{O}(κ\sqrt{s}\log(1/ε))O(κs​log(1/ε)) queries when ∥A∥≤1\|A\|\le1∥A∥≤1 and ∥A−1∥≤κ\|A^{-1}\|\leκ∥A−1∥≤κ, and we give an alternative proof of a matching joint lower bound. We also give gate-efficient implementations of time-independent Hamiltonian simulation and the dissipative ODE solver, including Lipschitz time dependence, retaining the query bounds with polylogarithmic overhead in inverse precision given efficient entry decoding, arithmetic, and required source preparations.
We give a quantum algorithm for simulating a ddd-sparse Hermitian Hamiltonian HHH, assuming a known upper bound ΛΛΛ on its maximum column Euclidean norm ∥H∥1→2\|H\|_{1\to2}∥H∥1→2​. For tΛ≥1/2tΛ\ge1/2tΛ≥1/2, simulation with operator-norm error εεε uses O ⁣(tΛd+dlog⁡(2/ε)) O\!\left(tΛ\sqrt d+\sqrt d\log(2/ε)\right) O(tΛd​+d​log(2/ε)) sparse-oracle queries. This removes the subpolynomial overhead in Low's algorithm [STOC 2019], replacing it with an additive logarithmic precision term. For d>1d>1d>1 and tΛ≥log⁡(2/ε)tΛ\ge\log(2/ε)tΛ≥log(2/ε), the bound matches the worst-case lower bound. A known spectral-norm upper bound may also be used in place of ΛΛΛ. The number of 1- and 2-qubit gates is linear in the query scale, up to oracle costs and polynomial overhead in the input bit lengths and logarithmic precision parameters. As applications, we obtain O(κd polylog(κ/ε))O(κ\sqrt d\,\mathrm{polylog}(κ/ε))O(κd​polylog(κ/ε)) queries for solving ddd-sparse quantum linear systems with ∥A∥≤1\|A\|\le1∥A∥≤1 and ∥A−1∥≤κ\|A^{-1}\|\leκ∥A−1∥≤κ, under standard sparse and state-preparation access. We also give a gate-efficient implementation of black-box unitaries with at most ddd nonzero entries per row and column using O(dlog⁡(2/ε))O(\sqrt d\log(2/ε))O(d​log(2/ε)) queries, given sparse access to the unitary and its adjoint. At constant error, the query bound is optimal and yields Θ(N)Θ(\sqrt N)Θ(N​) queries for arbitrary N×NN\times NN×N unitaries, resolving the open question on black-box unitary implementation posed by Berry and Childs [QIC 2012].
Quantum linear system solvers form one of the central algorithmic primitives in quantum computing, with applications ranging from differential equations and optimization to machine learning. Their cost is commonly measured through query complexity, which counts the number of oracle calls needed to access the input matrix. In the sparse-access model, this complexity is governed by three parameters: the condition number κκκ, the sparsity sss of the input matrix, and the target precision ε\varepsilonε. The dependence on κκκ and ε\varepsilonε is already well understood through the lower bound Ω(κlog⁡(1/ε))Ω(κ\log(1/\varepsilon))Ω(κlog(1/ε)), which matches the best known scaling in these parameters. Once the sparsity sss is included, however, the expected lower bound has long been conjectured to be Ω(κslog⁡(1/ε))Ω(κ\sqrt{s}\log(1/\varepsilon))Ω(κs​log(1/ε)). Recent work by Mori et al. [Quantum Sci. Tech. 11 035063 (2026)] made an important step towards this goal by establishing the lower bound Ω(κs)Ω(κ\sqrt{s})Ω(κs​) for constant error ε\varepsilonε. In this work, we complete the picture and prove the full joint lower bound Ω(κslog⁡(1/ε))Ω(κ\sqrt{s}\log(1/\varepsilon))Ω(κs​log(1/ε)) in the sparse-access model, thereby establishing the anticipated dependence on all three parameters simultaneously.
We develop a quantum algorithm for slow analytic Hamiltonians H~(t)=H(t/T)\widetilde H(t)=H(t/T)H(t)=H(t/T) with ∥H(s)∥≤α\|H(s)\|\leqα∥H(s)∥≤α that achieves nearly additive query complexity and low gate overhead. Our main technical contribution is a periodic Gevrey extension of H(s)H(s)H(s), together with Fourier component decay and truncation bounds that enable an efficient finite-dimensional simulation. Combined with Floquet embedding and optimal time-independent Hamiltonian simulation technique, this gives query complexity O~ ⁣(αT+log⁡(1/ε))\widetilde{\mathcal O}\!\left(αT+\log(1/\varepsilon)\right)O(αT+log(1/ε)) and additional gate complexity O~ ⁣((αT+log⁡(1/ε))2log⁡(1/ε))\widetilde{\mathcal O}\!\left((αT+\log(1/\varepsilon))^2\log(1/\varepsilon)\right)O((αT+log(1/ε))2log(1/ε)), assuming coherent access to H′(s)H'(s)H′(s) and endpoint derivatives. For slow analytic control Hamiltonians, only block encodings of the time-independent control operators are required, with the same query complexity and lower gate overhead. Our method also extends to Gevrey Hamiltonians and improves the precision dependence for simulating slow analytic semi-dissipative linear differential equations.
We present an efficient, nearly optimal quantum algorithm for solving linear matrix differential equations, with applications to the simulation of open quantum systems and beyond. For unitary or dissipative dynamics, the algorithm computes an entry of the solution matrix with query complexity O~(νLt/ε)\widetilde{\mathcal{O}}(ν\mathcal{L} t/ε)O(νLt/ε), where the constant ννν depends on the problem parameters, L\mathcal{L}L involves a time integral of upper bounds on the norms of evolution operators, and εεε is the error. In particular, νLν\mathcal{L}νL is linear in ttt for unitary dynamics and can be a constant for dissipative dynamics. Our result contrasts prior quantum approaches for differential equations that typically require exponential time for this problem due to the encoding in a quantum state, which can lead to exponentially small amplitudes. We demonstrate the utility of the algorithm through an end-to-end application, namely the simulation of dissipative dynamics for non-interacting fermions, which can be extended to other quantum and classical systems. We compare with classical algorithms and give evidence of polynomial quantum speedups for systems in a lattice, which become more pronounced for systems with long-range interactions and can be shown to be exponential in general. We also provide a lower bound of Ω(νLt/ε)Ω(ν\mathcal{L} t/ε)Ω(νLt/ε) for unitary or dissipative dynamics that proves our algorithm is optimal up to logarithmic factors.
We give the first sublinear-time classical solvers for sparse semidefinite programs in the bounded-radius regime, without low-rank assumptions or Frobenius norm dependence on the constraint matrices. For constant precision and bounded primal and dual radii, prior quantum algorithms of Brandão et al. (2019) and van Apeldoorn and Gilyén (2019) achieved O~(n+m)\widetilde{O}(\sqrt{n}+\sqrt{m})O(n​+m​) dependence on matrix dimension nnn and constraint number mmm. Compared with the O~(mn)\widetilde{O}(mn)O(mn) runtime of existing classical methods, this suggests a quartic quantum speedup when m≈nm \approx nm≈n. Beyond a usual Grover speedup, this separation relies on the Quantum OR lemma, whose sample-reuse mechanism decouples the cost of Gibbs-state preparation from constraint search. We show that this reuse mechanism is classically realizable for sparse SDPs. Our main technical contribution is a classical procedure for simultaneously estimating many expectation values with respect to a sparse Hamiltonian's Gibbs state. This combines randomized Lánczos filtering with an efficient sampling-based estimator. We also introduce a stochastic online-learning framework for SDP solving, substantially improving accuracy-dependence over standard oracle-based MMWU approaches. Let sss denote the the input matrix sparsity and γ:=Rr/εγ:=Rr/\varepsilonγ:=Rr/ε capture dependence on the primal (R)(R)(R) and dual (r)(r)(r) radii as well as target accuracy (ε)(\varepsilon)(ε). When γ2≤min⁡{m,n/s}γ^2\leq\min\{m,n/s\}γ2≤min{m,n/s}, our solver runs in time O~(nsγ4.5+msγ2)\widetilde{O}\left(nsγ^{4.5}+msγ^2\right)O(nsγ4.5+msγ2). For γ=O(1)γ=O(1)γ=O(1), this is O~((n+m)s)\widetilde{O}\left((n+m)s\right)O((n+m)s) and sublinear in the O(mns)O(mns)O(mns) input size. Similar to the quantum algorithms, this matches known lower bounds with respect to mmm and nnn, up to logarithmic factors. This implies that, with respect to dimensions mmm and nnn, there is no super-quadratic quantum advantage for generic sparse SDP solving.
Quantum linear system (QLS) solvers are a fundamental class of quantum algorithms used in many potential quantum computing applications, including machine learning and solving differential equations. The performance of quantum algorithms is often measured by their query complexity, which quantifies the number of oracle calls required to access the input. The main parameters determining the complexity of QLS solvers are the condition number κκκ and sparsity sss of the linear system, and the target error εεε. To date, the best known query-complexity lower bound is Ω(κlog⁡(1/ε))Ω(κ\log(1/ε))Ω(κlog(1/ε)), which establishes the optimality of the most recent QLS solvers. The original proof of this lower bound is attributed to Harrow and Kothari, but their result is unpublished. Furthermore, when discussing a more general lower bound including the sparsity sss of the linear system, it has become folklore that it should read as Ω(κslog⁡(1/ε))Ω( κ\sqrt{s}\log(1/ε))Ω(κs​log(1/ε)). In this work, we establish the rigorous lower bound capturing the sparsity dependence of QLS. We prove the lower bound of Ω(κs)Ω(κ\sqrt{s})Ω(κs​) for any quantum algorithm that solves QLS with constant error. While the dependence on all parameters κ,s,εκ,s,εκ,s,ε remains an open problem, our result provides a crucial stepping stone toward the complete characterization of QLS complexity.