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arXiv:2607.12032

Quantum incompatibility of Born probabilities

Esteban Castro-Ruiz, Nathan Cohen, Luis C. Barbado, Časlav Brukner

quant-phgr-qchep-thSubmitted Jul 13, 2026• Announced Jul 15, 2026• 0 citations

Abstract

Quantum theory challenges the view that individual measurement outcomes are predefined and independent of the measurement context. Yet the quantum state itself -- the catalogue of probabilities for all possible measurements -- is usually assumed to be well defined. We argue that this assumption tacitly relies on measurements being performed relative to ideal, infinitely-resourceful reference frames. We show that, when measurements are made relative to non-ideal quantum reference frames, the probabilities themselves become indefinite: even in the limit of arbitrarily large number of runs, the relative frequencies may remain uncertain. The uncertainty is irreducible in a quantum-mechanical sense, as we show by proving a Bell-type theorem for relative frequencies. We further propose a quantum-optical implementation of these relational measurements based on pulsed homodyne detection. Our findings motivate an extension of the notion of the quantum state to regimes constrained by finite resources. We expect them to be especially relevant at the interface between quantum theory and general relativity, where the resources and information available in a bounded region of spacetime are fundamentally limited.

Comments: 18+13 pages, 3 figures

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