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arXiv:2501.03210 · Computer Networks

Simulation of entanglement based quantum networks for performance characterization

David Pérez-Castro, Juan Fernández‐Herrerín‐Álvarez, Ana Fernández Vilas, Manuel Fernández‐Veiga, Rebeca P. Dı́az Redondo

Published Apr 3, 2026• 3 citations
arXivHTMLPDF

Abstract

Entanglement-based networks (EBNs) enable general-purpose quantum communication by combining entanglement and its swapping in a sequence that addresses the challenges of achieving long-distance communication with high fidelity associated with quantum technologies. In this context, entanglement distribution refers to the process by which two nodes in a quantum network share an entangled state, serving as a fundamental resource for communication. In this paper, we study the performance of entanglement distribution mechanisms over a physical topology comprising end nodes and quantum switches, which are crucial for constructing large-scale links. To this end, we implemented a switch-based topology in NetSquid and conducted a series of simulation experiments to gain insight into practical and realistic quantum network engineering challenges. These challenges include, on the one hand, aspects related to quantum technology, such as memory technology, gate durations, and noise; and, on the other hand, factors associated with the distribution process, such as the number of switches, distances, purification, and error correction. All these factors significantly impact the end-to-end fidelity across a path, which supports communication between two quantum nodes. We use these experiments to derive some guidelines towards the design and configuration of future EBNs.

DOI
10.1016/j.comnet.2026.112249

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Entanglement-based networks (EBNs) enable general-purpose quantum communication by combining entanglement and its swapping in a sequence that addresses the challenges of achieving long-distance communication with high fidelity associated with quantum technologies. In this context, entanglement distribution refers to the process by which two nodes in a quantum network share an entangled state, serving as a fundamental resource for communication. In this paper, we study the performance of entanglement distribution mechanisms over a physical topology comprising end nodes and quantum switches, which are crucial for constructing large-scale links. To this end, we implemented a switch-based topology in NetSquid and conducted a series of simulation experiments to gain insight into practical and realistic quantum network engineering challenges. These challenges include, on the one hand, aspects related to quantum technology, such as memory technology, gate durations, and noise; and, on the other hand, factors associated with the distribution process, such as the number of switches, distances, purification, and error correction. All these factors significantly impact the end-to-end fidelity across a path, which supports communication between two quantum nodes. We use these experiments to derive some guidelines towards the design and configuration of future EBNs.
We implement a set of simulation experiments in NetSquid specifically designed to estimate the end-to-end fidelity across a path of quantum repeaters or quantum switches. The switch model includes several generalizations that are not currently available in other tools and are useful for gaining insight into practical and realistic quantum network engineering problems: an arbitrary number of memory registers at the switches, simplicity in including entanglement distillation mechanisms, arbitrary switching topologies, and routing protocols. An illustrative case study is presented, namely a comparison in terms of performance between a repeater chain where repeaters can only swap sequentially and a single switch equipped with multiple memory registers that is able to handle multiple swapping requests.
The scalability of quantum communication networks is crucial for enabling secure information exchange and distributed quantum computing across global infrastructures. However, achieving scalability remains a significant challenge due to the effects of decoherence, photon loss, and fidelity degradation over extended distances. This paper performs a critical investigation into the scalability limits of quantum communication networks, focusing on the interplay between entanglement generation rates, end-to-end fidelity, and network parameters such as node separation, noise levels, and total distance. Leveraging the SeQUeNCe simulation framework, we model adaptable trapped-ion repeater networks to uncover fundamental insights into both homogeneous and heterogeneous configurations. Our findings reveal transformative insights that help reshape system designs for near term quantum networks. We identify maximum node separation thresholds critical for practical implementations, illuminate the non-linear degradation of fidelity with increasing distance, and expose how routing and swapping protocols influence entanglement success rates at scale. Most notably, we demonstrate that while additional repeaters can mitigate distance-induced failures, excessive node counts introduce compounding fidelity losses that threaten network viability under certain architectures. These results provide a roadmap for revolutionizing quantum networks, with actionable design strategies such as optimized node placement, advanced routing algorithms, and the adoption of cutting-edge qubit technologies like topological qubits. By addressing key bottlenecks in quantum communication scalability, our work lays the foundation for the next generation of global quantum networks.
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Entanglement dynamics plays a crucial role in the development of scalable quantum information processing architectures. Quantum networks, composed of interconnected quantum nodes, offer promising avenues for the distribution and manipulation of quantum information over long distances. In this paper, we investigate the dynamics of entanglement in quantum networks and explore strategies for achieving scalable quantum information processing. the generation, distribution, and preservation of entanglement in various network topologies and investigate the impact of noise and decoherence on entanglement dynamics. Furthermore, we discuss potential applications of entanglement in quantum communication, cryptography, and computation, highlighting the importance of understanding and controlling entanglement dynamics for realizing practical quantum technologies. Through theoretical analysis and numerical simulations, we provide insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with entanglement dynamics in quantum networks, paving the way towards scalable quantum information processing architectures.
The efficacy of a communication network hinges upon both its physical architecture and the protocols that are employed within it. In the context of quantum communications, there exists a fundamental rate-loss trade-off for point-to-point quantum channels such that the rate for distributing entanglement, secret keys, or quantum states decays exponentially with respect to transmission distance. Quantum networks are the solution to overcome point-to-point limitations, but they simultaneously invite a challenging open question: How should quantum networks be designed to effectively and efficiently guarantee high rates? Now that performance and physical topology are inexorably linked, this question is not easy, but the answer is essential for a future quantum internet to be successful. In this work, we offer crucial insight into this open question for complex optical-fiber quantum networks. Using realistic descriptions of quantum networks via random network models and practical end-to-end routing protocols, we reveal critical phenomena associated with large-scale quantum networks. Our work reveals the weaknesses of applying single-path routing protocols within quantum networks, observing an inability to achieve reliable rates over long distances. Adapting algorithms for multipath routing, we employ an efficient and practical multipath routing algorithm capable of boosting performance while minimizing costly quantum resources.
Distributing quantum entanglements over long distances is essential for the realization of a global scale quantum Internet. Most of the prior work and proposals assume an on-demand distribution of entanglements which may result in significant network resource under-utilization. In this work, we introduce Quantum Overlay Networks (QONs) for efficient entanglement distribution in quantum networks. When the demand to create end-to-end user entanglements is low, QONs can generate and store maximally entangled Bell pairs (EPR pairs) at specific overlay storage nodes of the network. Later, during peak demands, requests can be served by performing entanglement swaps either over a direct path from the network or over a path using the storage nodes. We solve the link entanglement and storage resource allocation problem in such a QON using a centralized optimization framework. We evaluate the performance of our proposed QON architecture over a wide number of network topologies under various settings using extensive simulation experiments. Our results demonstrate that QONs fare well by a factor of 40% with respect to meeting surge and changing demands compared to traditional non-overlay proposals. QONs also show significant improvement in terms of average entanglement request service delay over non-overlay approaches.